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Drive-Reduction Theory
Motivation to reduce internal drives like thirst.
Belongingness
Innate desire to form meaningful relationships.
Incentive Theory
Behavior motivated by external rewards like money.
Self-Determination Theory
Motivation driven by intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory
Struggles faced when making decisions.
Emotion
Feelings influencing thoughts, body reactions, and actions.
Elicitors
Stimuli triggering emotional responses in individuals.
Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
Facial expressions can influence emotional states.
Broaden-and-Build Theory
Positive emotions encourage open thinking and new actions.
Universal Emotions
Certain emotions recognized similarly across cultures.
Display Rules
Cultural norms dictating emotional expression.
Psychodynamic Theory
Childhood experiences shape personality through unconscious drives.
Preconscious Mind
Thoughts not currently aware but accessible when needed.
Unconscious Mind
Memories influencing behavior without awareness.
Projective Test
Assessment revealing unconscious thoughts via stimuli.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies protecting the ego.
Self Concept
Individual's perception and awareness of themselves.
Unconditional Positive Regard
Acceptance without conditions or judgments.
Self-Actualizing Tendency
Innate drive to grow and develop.
Self-Esteem
Thoughts regarding one's own worth.
Self-Efficacy
Belief in one's ability to succeed.
Reciprocal Determinism
Behavior influenced by personal factors and environment.
Personality Inventories
Standardized tools assessing individual personality traits.
Meta Cognition
Thinking about one's own thinking processes.
Executive Functions
Skills for planning, organizing, and goal execution.
Prototypes
Mental images representing perfect examples of categories.
Schemas
Frameworks for organizing and interpreting information.
Assimilation
Incorporating new information into existing schemas.
Accommodation
Modifying schemas to include new information.
Convergent Thinking
Searching for one correct answer to a problem.
Functional Fixedness
Limiting use of objects to their traditional functions.
Algorithms
Step-by-step procedures for solving problems.
Divergent Thinking
Generating creative ideas through exploring many options.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb for decision-making.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging likelihood based on stereotypes.
Availability Heuristic
Relying on immediate examples to assess probability.
Mental Set
Approach situations using past successful methods.
Priming
Exposure to a stimulus influences response unconsciously.
Framing
Presentation of information affects decisions and perceptions.
Gambler's Fallacy
Belief past events influence future probabilities.
Sunk Cost Fallacy
Fear of losing what is already owned.
Flynn Effect
Rise in general intelligence due to environmental factors.
Stereotype Threat
Underperformance due to fear of confirming stereotypes.
Stereotype Lift
Improved performance from positive group expectations.
Perception
Brain organizes and interprets sensory information.
Bottom-Up Processing
Building perception from small details to whole.
Top-Down Processing
Interpreting sensory information based on context.
Selective Attention
Focusing on specific information while ignoring others.
Cocktail Party Effect
Focusing on one conversation in a noisy environment.
Inattentional Blindness
Failure to notice unexpected stimuli when focused.
Change Blindness
Not noticing changes due to focused attention.
Schemas
Mental frameworks for organizing and interpreting information.
Perceptual Set
Tendency to perceive or notice aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others.
Depth Perception
Ability to perceive distance and depth visually.
Retinal Disparity
Each eye sees slightly different images.
Convergence
Eyes move inward to focus on nearby objects.
Monocular Depth Cues
Depth perception using one eye's information.
Size Constancy
Perception of object size remains constant despite distance.
Shape Constancy
Perception of object shape remains constant despite angle.
Color Constancy
Perception of color remains stable under varying light.
Brightness Constancy
Perception of brightness remains stable despite illumination changes.
Apparent Movement
Perception of motion without actual movement.
Predictive validity
The ability of a test or measurement to prey's future outcome
Reliability
Consistency and dependability of a measurement or research instrument
test-retest reliability
a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
split-half reliability
A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.
Achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
fixed mindset
the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
growth mindset
the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
general intelligence (g factor)
A persons overall cognitive ability's
multiple intelligences
idea that people vary in their ability levels across different domains of intellectual skill
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
a standard measure of an individual's intelligence level based on psychological tests.
Mental age
the level of cognitive ability a person demonstrates, compared to the average performance of others at the same chronological age
Chronological age
measures a person's age from their calendar date of birth until the date their age is asked.
Standardization
the process of making a test uniform, or setting it to a specific standard
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Construct validity
The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct.
Gestalt Grouping Principles
refer to how human beings tend to perceive objects in organized patterns because the mind automatically perceives stimuli based on grouping rules
Figure-Ground
the visual perception principle where the brain separates an object of focus (the "figure") from its surrounding background (the "ground")
Closure
a Gestalt principle where the brain tends to fill in missing information to perceive a complete image
Proximity
the Gestalt principle that states objects positioned close together are perceived as belonging to the same group
Similarity
a Gestalt principle where individuals tend to perceive objects that share similar characteristics (like color, shape, or size) as belonging together and forming a group
