hgap comprehensive review

Cartogram

A map in which some thematic mapping variable is substituted for land area or distance.

Choropleth

A thematic map in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion to the value of a statistical variable being represented.

Dot Density

A thematic map that uses a dot symbol to show the presence of a feature or a phenomenon.

Isoline (Isopleth)

A line on a map connecting points of equal value to represent data like elevation or temperature.

Proportional Symbol

A map symbol that varies in size to represent a quantitative value associated with a specific location.

Absolute and relative distance

Concepts in geography referring to the exact measurement between two points and the distance in relation to other locations.

Absolute and relative location

The precise spot where something is located and where something is in relation to other things.

Clustering

The spatial arrangement of objects or people grouped closely together.

Dispersal

The pattern where objects or people are distributed over a wide area.

Elevation

The height of a location above a reference point, often represented on maps using contour lines.

Map Projections

Methods to represent the curved surface of the Earth on a flat map, causing distortions in shape, size, distance, or direction.

Mercator Map

A map projection that accurately represents shape and direction but distorts size, particularly near the poles.

Robinson Map

A map projection that minimizes distortion in all aspects but does not maintain accurate area, shape, distance, or direction.

Goode Map

A map projection that accurately portrays continent sizes but sacrifices direction and distance accuracy.

Gall Peters

A map projection that distorts the shape of countries, especially near the equator, resembling wet clothes hanging on a line.

Geospatial Data

Information including physical features and human activities related to positions on Earth's surface.

Geographic Information System (GIS)

A computer system capturing, storing, checking, and displaying geospatial data.

GPS (Geographic Positioning System)

A system using satellite data to determine precise locations on Earth.

Remote Sensing

The process of collecting data about the Earth's surface from satellites or aircraft for geographic analysis.

Census Data

Official population count conducted periodically to gather demographic information.

Absolute location

The exact position of a place on the Earth's surface.

Relative Location

The position of a place in relation to other locations.

Space

The extent of an area in both relative and absolute terms.

Place

Refers to the specific human and physical characteristics of a location.

Distance Decay

The decrease in interaction or influence between places as the distance between them increases.

Time-Space Compression

The concept of the world becoming "smaller" due to increased connectivity despite physical distances remaining the same.

Pattern

The arrangement of objects or features in a specific order or layout within an area.

Guest worker

A legal immigrant allowed to work in a country for a short period

Refugee

A person fleeing their home country and unable to return

Transhumance

Seasonal movement of animal herds between highlands and lowlands

Cultural Relativism

Judging a culture based on its own standards

Expansion Diffusion

Spread of an idea to a larger population

Sense of place

Strong identity felt by inhabitants of a location

Multiculturalism

Coexistence of various ethnic groups without losing identities

State

Political unit with recognized boundaries and administration

Sovereignty

Final authority over a territory

Relic Boundary

Boundary that no longer exists but remnants remain

Demilitarized zone

Area where weapons and military forces are removed

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Zone where a state has rights to explore resources

Democracy

a form of government where the ultimate power rests with the people through elected representatives

Unitary state

a country where the national government is strong and regional governments are weak (e.g., U.K., North Korea, France)

Federal state

a country where the national government is strong and regional governments share power (e.g., United States, Canada, Russia)

Devolution

the transfer of decision-making power from a central government to a lower level

Ethnic Separatism

division based on religion, language, or ethnicity (e.g., Quebec)

Irredentism

when a state seeks to annex a territory with a similar ethnic population (e.g., Russia with Crimea)

Centripetal Force

unifying force that enhances state support

Centrifugal Force

divisive force that separates the state

Agriculture

modifying the environment to raise plants or animals for food or other uses

Intensive agriculture

labor-intensive farming on a small land area

Organic Farming

Crops produced without synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, or genetically engineered seeds.

Fair Trade

Trade between more and less developed countries with fair prices for producers.

Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA)

Mutual support between growers and consumers in a farm operation.

Urban Farming

Integrating crop cultivation or animal raising into urban ecosystems.

Dietary Shifts

Transition from processed foods, meat, and sugars to a diet rich in fruits and vegetables.

Food Insecurity

Lack of reliable access to affordable, nutritious food.

Food Desert

Geographic areas with limited access to fresh, nutritious foods, often in urban, low-income neighborhoods.

Weather

High temperatures, droughts, floods, storms, and freezes affecting agricultural production.

Women in Agriculture

Gender roles in food production and consumption, including challenges and impacts on productivity and health.

Urbanization

Movement of people from rural areas to cities.

Socioeconomic Stratification

Society's differentiation into classes based on wealth, power, production, or prestige.

Megacities

Cities with 10 million inhabitants or more, influencing global economic decisions.

Redlining

Discriminatory real estate practice preventing minorities from buying property in white neighborhoods.

Blockbusting

Technique inducing property sales at low prices by implying negative neighborhood changes.

Affordable Housing

Economical residential units for those below median income.

Access to Services

Measure of people's ability to afford services without financial strain.

Rising Crime Rates

Factors include job scarcity, poor education access, and perceived lack of opportunities.

Environmental Injustice

Disproportionate pollution exposure to communities of color and poor.

Disamenity Zones

Areas with slums, homelessness, and sometimes controlled by gangs.

Zones of Abandonment

Areas with declining land values, lack of jobs, and population exodus.

Squatter Settlements

Poverty-stricken residential areas with shelters on unowned land.

Land Tenure

System regulating land ownership, control, and usage rights.

Inclusionary Zoning

Ordinances providing affordable housing for low to moderate-income individuals.

Local Food Movements

Production and consumption of food within a short distance, distinct from large-scale supermarkets.

Urban Renewal

Redevelopment of economically declining urban neighborhoods.

Gentrification

Restoration of urban areas by wealthier individuals, impacting existing residents positively and negatively.

Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs)

Countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, and Mexico that have experienced rapid industrial growth.

New Asian Tigers

Refers to Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore, which have become highly developed economies in Asia due to manufacturing.

Special Economic Zones

Designated areas within a country with tax and investment incentives to attract businesses, both foreign and domestic.

Free-Trade Zones

Areas where trade barriers between two countries are eliminated, promoting trade without tariffs.

Export Processing Zones

Regions in developing countries that offer incentives for foreign companies to operate there, leading to foreign investments and job opportunities.

International Division of Labor

The transfer of certain job types, often low-skilled roles, from developed to developing countries.

Fordism

A mass production method where each worker has a specific repetitive task.

Post-Fordism

Companies adopting flexible work rules, like assigning workers to teams with varied tasks.

Economies of Scale

Efficiency improvement in production as the quantity of goods produced increases.

Just-in-Time Delivery

Parts arriving at the factory right before they are needed to reduce inventory space.

Service Sector

The part of the economy dealing with services like transportation, communications, and utilities.

Sustainable Development

Development meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs.

Ecotourism

Tourism in natural environments that benefits locals and protects the environment.

UN’s Sustainable Development Goals

Goals aiming to improve living conditions in the least developed countries, covering areas like poverty eradication and environmental sustainability.