Exam 1 Comprehensive Study Guide: Introductory Psychology (PSYC 2301)

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the foundations of psychology, research methods, biological bases, consciousness, drugs, and personality based on the Exam 1 study guide.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes using empirical, systematic research methods to describe, explain, predict, and influence phenomena.

Behavior

Any observable, measurable action an organism performs, such as talking, pressing a lever, or facial expressions.

Mental Processes

Internal, subjective experiences that cannot be directly observed, including thoughts, emotions, memories, beliefs, and perceptions.

Structuralism

An early school of thought founded by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener that focused on breaking down conscious experience into basic components like sensations, feelings, and images using introspection.

Introspection

A method used in structuralism where trained subjects reported their conscious reactions to specific stimuli.

Functionalism

An early perspective led by William James, influenced by Charles Darwin, that focused on how mental processes and behaviors function to allow organisms to adapt, survive, and thrive.

Psychoanalytic Theory

A perspective developed by Sigmund Freud emphasizing the influence of the unconscious mind, unresolved childhood conflicts, and hidden sexual and aggressive drives.

Humanistic Psychology

The "third force" in psychology, led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasizing individual potential, free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Cognitive Perspective

A theoretical approach that treats the human mind like a computer, examining how we encode, process, store, retrieve, and manipulate information.

Evolutionary Perspective

A focus on how natural selection has shaped modern human behaviors and psychological traits that provided survival or reproductive advantages to ancestors.

Feminist Psychology

A perspective focused on social, cultural, and political influences on gender and identity, seeking to correct historical male biases in research and theory.

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplace and organizational settings.

Forensic Psychology

The specialty field where psychological principles meet the legal and criminal justice systems.

Clinical Psychology

The field dedicated to the assessment, diagnosis, causes, and treatment of severe mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

Counseling Psychology

A specialty focused on facilitating personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan, helping individuals adapt to everyday stressors and transitions.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable, and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables, often derived from a broader theory.

Replication

The process of repeating a study using the same operational definitions with different participants or settings to ensure original findings are consistent and reliable.

Confirmation Bias

The unconscious cognitive tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information that confirms preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory data.

Experimental Research

A research method where a researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) to observe effects on a dependent variable (DV) while holding constants through random assignment.

Correlational Research

A non-experimental method that measures the statistical relationship between two or more naturally occurring variables without researcher intervention.

Survey Research

A method used to gather self-reported data from a large, representative sample regarding attitudes, behaviors, or characteristics via questionnaires or interviews.

Case Studies

An intensive, in-depth investigation of a single individual, small group, or unique event over an extended period.

Longitudinal Studies

A developmental design where the same cohort of participants is followed and repeatedly tested over a prolonged period of time.

Cross-Sectional Studies

A developmental design where data is gathered simultaneously from groups of participants of varying ages at one single point in time.

Reliability

Refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement tool, yielding the same results repeatedly under identical conditions.

Validity

Refers to the accuracy of a measurement tool, ensuring it genuinely measures what it intends or claims to measure.

Positive Correlation

A statistical relationship where variables move in the same direction; as one increases, the other increases.

Negative Correlation

A statistical relationship where variables move in opposite directions; as one increases, the other decreases.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A quantitative measure ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.

Directionality Problem

A logical barrier in correlation where it is unknown whether variable A causes B, or variable B causes A.

Third-Variable Problem (Confounding)

The possibility that an unmeasured external variable causes observed changes in both correlated variables, creating an illusion of a direct link.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord, serving as the primary command and control center for the body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A division of the Peripheral Nervous System that operates involuntarily to regulate internal organs, smooth muscles, and glands.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The body's emergency arousal system responsible for activating the "fight-or-flight" response during stress or threat.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The body's calming maintenance system responsible for the "rest-and-digest" response and restoring homeostasis.

Synapse

The microscopic junction or physical gap between the axon terminal of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft that bind to receptor sites on a receiving neuron to either excite or inhibit it.

Lateralization

The specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres, where specific cognitive functions are localized primarily in either the left or right side.

Occipital Lobe

The region at the back of the brain containing the primary visual cortex, exclusively dedicated to processing vision.

Temporal Lobe

The region located on the sides near the ears responsible for auditory processing, language comprehension, and memory storage.

Parietal Lobe

The region at the top-rear of the brain containing the somatosensory cortex which processes sensations like touch, pressure, and pain.

Frontal Lobe

The front region of the brain handling voluntary motor movements, speech production (Broca's area), and higher executive functions.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to generate highly detailed, static, 3D images of brain anatomy and structure.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A technique that measures dynamic brain activity by tracking changes in blood flow and oxygenation levels (the BOLD signal).

Consciousness

An individual's subjective awareness of their own internal states and external environmental stimuli.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

A paradoxical sleep stage with active brain waves where vivid dreaming occurs and the brain induces muscle atonia.

Muscle Atonia

Complete voluntary muscle paralysis that occurs during REM sleep to prevent individuals from physically acting out dreams.

Circadian Rhythms

Internal biological clocks running on an approximate 24-hour cycle that regulate sleep-wake cycles and alertness.

Melatonin

A hormone synthesized by the pineal gland that induces drowsiness and signals the body to prepare for sleep.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A structure in the hypothalamus that receives light signals from the retina to regulate melatonin production.

Night Terrors

Abrupt awakenings during N3 deep sleep marked by intense panic and autonomic arousal, usually with no memory of the event.

Narcolepsy

A chronic neurological disorder marked by sudden, uncontrollable daytime sleep attacks where the person plunges directly into REM sleep.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder where an individual repeatedly stops breathing for 10 seconds or longer throughout the night, causing micro-awakenings.

Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS)

A sensory-motor disorder characterized by an irresistible, uncomfortable urge to move the legs, primarily during rest or inactivity.

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs that slow down CNS activity, typically by enhancing the neurotransmitter GABA (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines).

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs that excite and accelerate CNS activity by boosting dopamine and norepinephrine (e.g., caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines).

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs that distort sensory perceptions and alter thought processes, often by mimicking serotonin (e.g., LSD, psilocybin).

Tolerance

The progressive diminution of a drug's effect following repeated use, requiring larger doses to achieve the initial effect.

Dependence

A state where an individual requires the constant presence of a drug to function normally, which can be physical or psychological.

Neuroadaptation

The process where the brain maintains homeostasis by decreasing natural neurotransmitter production or reducing active receptors (downregulation) due to repeated drug intake.

The Big Five (OCEAN)

The universal dimensions of personality: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

Natural Selection

The process where heritable traits that enhance survival and reproductive success are more likely to be passed down to subsequent generations.

SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)

The sudden, unexplained death of a seemingly healthy infant under age one, typically occurring during sleep.