Unit 1 Part 2 AP Psychology

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating)

dual processing

Information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks 

parallel processing

Unconscious processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

sequential processing

Conscious processing or one aspect of a problem at a time.

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms(ex. Temp and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle

REM sleep

-rapid eye movement sleep; a reoccurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur

-muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

-a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. -In response to light, adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness. 

NREM 1

Brief stage of sleep during which a person might experience hallucinations and hypnagogic sensations

NREM 2

20 minute sleep stage in which sleep spindles may appear on the EEG 

NREM 3

Deep sleep marked by delta waves, in which it is difficult to awaken people since the brain and body are deep asleep

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

beta waves

the fast brain waves associated with alertness and active thinking.

insomnia

Chronic inability to fall asleep, frequent arousals during sleep, early morning awakening

narcolepsy

-a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks

-affected person may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

sleep apnea

Temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and reported momentary awakenings.

REM sleep behavior disorder

• Normal REM paralysis does not occur

• Instead, twitching, kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one’s dream.

REM Rebound

Tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

perception

the process by which brain selects, organizes, and interprets coded neural messages into meaningful patterns. 

bottom-up processing

info processing that begins with the sensory receptors and work up to the brain’s integration of sensory info

top-down processing

info processing guided by higher-level mental process, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

sensory transduction

• Sensory process converting physical energy (ie. light, sound waves) into neural messages the brain can interpret. 

absolute threshold

Minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

signal detection theory

argues that absolute thresholds don’t exist, since other factors need to be considered when determining whether we can detect a stimuli. Expectation, motivation, circumstances, and alertness can all have an effect

subliminal

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

wavelength

 distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave the peak of the next

Hue

dimension of color determined by wavelength of light, what we know as the color names blue, green, etc

intensity

 amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave that influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness and is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).

cornea

the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris

pupil

adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

iris

ring of muscular tissue allowing pupil to dilate or constrict to light oremotion.

lens

-transparent structure that bends light passing through the eye and changes shape to focus

- reverses the image on the retina and the brain later corrects the image. 

retina

• Thin, light sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball. 

Contains millions of photoreceptors required for vision.

accommodation

the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus mages of near or far objects on the retina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray, and are sensitive to movement

necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions

detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot

•  the point where the optic nerve exits the eye and where there are no photoreceptors. Any stimulus that falls on this area cannot be seen. 

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision.

Young-Helmgoltz trichromatic Theory

The retina contains three different types of color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue, which when stimulated in combination can produce perception of any color.

audition

the sense or act of hearing 

frequency

• number of cycles completed by a wave in a given time

pitch

high or lowness of sound; depends on freq

middle ear

• chamber between ear drum(tympanic membrane) and cochlea containing three tiny bones (ossicles), called the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, which concentrate vibrations of eardrum and cochlea's oval window

cochlea

• coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in inner ear that sounds waves travel through, triggering nerve impulses

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, contains cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

sensorineural hearing loss/ nerve deafness

the most common form of the hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve

conduction deafness

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

place theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear w/ the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

In hearing, the theory that rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch

gate-control theory

• Spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. 

• The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by info coming from the brain.

gustation

our sense of taste

olfaction

our sense of smell

kinesthesis

• Our movement sense; our system for sensing the position and movement of our own individual body parts.

vestibular sense

Balance and body position works w/ kinesthesis to keep our balance when moving.

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gesture, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements

Hammer

a small bone in the middle ear that helps transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear.

anvil

a small bone in the middle ear, also known as the incus, that connects the hammer to the stirrup and aids in the transmission of sound vibrations.

stirrup

a small bone in the middle ear, also known as the stapes, that transmits sound vibrations from the anvil to the inner ear.