ap psych text prep

Neuron

Highly specialized cells used to send signals throughout the nervous system

Dendrite

Short fibers that branch out from the cell body and pick up incoming messages

Cell Body

Made up of a nucleus, which contains a complete set of chromosomes and genes; cytoplasm, which keeps the cell alive; and a cell membrane, which keeps the cell enclosed

Axon

Single long fiber extending from the cell body; it carries outgoing messages

Myelin Sheath

White fatty covering on axons that increases the speed in which the message is sent and protects the nervous system

Demyelinating Disease

Multiple Sclerosis

Terminal Button (Synaptic Knob)

Structure at the end of an axon terminal branch

Synaptic Vesicles

Tiny sacs in a terminal button that release chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the synapse

The Synaptic Cleft

Tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron

Synapse

Area composed of the axon terminal of one neuron, the synaptic space and the dendrite of the next neuron

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by the synaptic vesicles that travel across the synaptic space and trigger adjacent neurons

Receptor Sites

A location on a neuron that receives incoming neurotransmitters that fits like a key into a lock

Reuptake

The neuron sending the message will take back any neurotransmitters left in the synaptic gap

Afferent (Sensory) Neurons

Carry the messages from the sense organs to the spinal cord or brain

Efferent (Motor) Neurons

Carry messages from the spinal cord or brain to the muscles and glands

Myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disorder caused by an error in how nerve signals are sent to muscles. Acetylcholine is blocked, altered, or destroyed

Interneuron (Associative Neuron)

Neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another

The Reflex Arc

1. Receptors 2. Sensory neuron 3. Interneurons 4. Motor neurons

Resting Potential

Electrical charge across a neuron membrane- positive ions on the outside and negative ions on the inside. The neuron is doing nothing (resting)

Action Potential

The firing of a nerve cell; positives inside/ negatives outside

Graded Potential

A shift in the electrical charge in a tiny area of a neuron

Threshold of Excitation

The level an impulse must exceed to cause a neuron to fire

All or None Principle

Action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or not at all

Absolute Refractory Period

A period after firing, when a neuron cannot fire again no matter how strong the incoming messages may be

Relative Refractory Period

A period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state and will fire again only if the incoming messages is much stronger than usual

Acetylcholine

Motor (muscle) movement both involuntary/ voluntary; helps retain and organize memories; lack associated with Alzheimer's disease

Dopamine

Voluntary motor movement, alertness; acts as a reward system in the brain; increases when you are doing something that brings you pleasure; lack associated with Parkinson's Disease; excess associated with Schizophrenia

Serotonin

Mood control; lack associated with major depression disorder (MDD)

Norepinephrine

Alertness, arousal and reward; lack causes MDD

Endorphin

Released in response to stress or pain (natural opiate); can be increased by exercise, laughing, music; involved with addictions/ highs

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

Regulates (slows) neural excitability; helps to control anxiety, and convulsions (seizures)

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter; important for learning and memory; higher levels when awake and in REM; too much can cause excitotoxicity: Excessive glutamate exposure damages neurons and leads to cell death

Substance P

Associated with the perception of pain (pain signaling), mood disorders, anxiety, vomiting

Psychopharmacology

Use of medications to treat mental health conditions

Agonist

Type of drug that mimics a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

Type of drug that blocks a neurotransmitter from entering the receptor sites

Reuptake Inhibitors

Certain drugs will block neurotransmitter reuptake, leaving more of the chemical in the synapse and allowing the receptors to continue to be stimulated

Neural Plasticity

The ability of the brain to change in response to experience or damage

Neurogenesis

The growth of new neurons

The Endocrine System

Consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning

Pituitary Gland

The 'Master Gland' that produces the hormone that influences the secretion of the other glands

Growth Hormone

A hormone secreted by the pituitary gland

Posterior Pituitary

Releases oxytocin

Adrenaline

Produced by the adrenal gland, increased during the fight or flight response

Leptin

A hormone that acts on the brainstem and hypothalamus in order to maintain body weight and helps prevent hunger

Ghrelin

Known as the 'hunger hormone', relates to the stomach and hypothalamus, increases appetite and promotes fat storage

Melatonin

Hormone involved with falling asleep, connected to circadian rhythm and the 24/25 hour sleep cycle

Oxytocin

Related to female and male reproduction, involved in childbirth, increases when hugging, creates a feeling of love and trust

The Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which together contain 90% of the body's neurons

The Brain

The main component of the central nervous system that controls the whole body

Spinal Cord

Complex cables of neurons that run down the spine, connecting the brain to most of the rest of the body

The Peripheral Nervous System

The way in which the rest of the body communicates with the central nervous system

The Somatic Nervous System

Made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and sensory receptors

Autonomic Nervous System

Carries involuntary messages between the central nervous system and the internal organs

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for quick action in emergencies, slows digestion, drains blood from the periphery of the body, releases hormones

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms and relaxes the body, slows heart rate, reduces blood pressure, promotes digestion

Hindbrain

Base of the brain mainly involved in life functions, contains Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum

Medulla

Controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

Pons

Controls facial expressions, connected to the limbic system, involved in sleep and alertness

Cerebellum

Controls certain reflexes, balance, fine motor movement, and forms of procedural learning

Midbrain

Region between the hindbrain and forebrain, important for hearing, sight, and can register pain

Forebrain

Largest region of the brain, with many important roles

Cerebral Cortex

The outer surface of the two cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behaviors

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for voluntary movement, attention, goal-directed behavior, and appropriate emotional responses

Parietal Lobe

Organizes information from throughout the body, contains somatosensory cortex

Occipital Lobe

Receives and interprets visual information

Temporal Lobe

Helps regulate hearing, linguistic processing, balance, equilibrium, and face recognition

Reticular Formation (RF)

Network of neurons in the hindbrain, the midbrain and part of the forebrain that filters sensory information that goes into forebrain to motivate you in a certain direction.

Thalamus

(Switchboard of the brain) relays and translates incoming messages from all of the senses other than smell.

Hypothalamus

Controls motivation and emotional responses, metabolic functions (body temperature, hunger, thirst), libido (sex drive), and the Endocrine System.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of fibers connecting the left and right cerebral cortex.

Split brain

When the corpus callosum is cut (rarely done to ease severe cases of epilepsy) causing no connection between the left side and right side of the brain.

Limbic System

Ring of structures that play a role in learning and emotional behavior, made up of the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

Hippocampus

Converts short-term to long-term memories; without this area people are unable to retain new information (Anterograde Amnesia).

Amygdala

Involved in emotions and aggression.

Hemispheric Specialization

The right and left side of the brain have different and specific functions.

Stronger Right Lobe

Associated with creativity, visual and spatial tasks, nonverbal imagery, face recognition, and more emotional responses.

Stronger Left Lobe

Associated with logic and language, operates more analytically, rationally, and sequentially.

Wernicke's Area

Located in back of the temporal lobe (left side), crucial in processing and understanding what others are saying.

Broca's Area

Found in the frontal lobe (left side), controls our ability to speak.

Aphasia

Damage to the parts of the brain that control communication, impacting the ability to speak or understand language.

Consciousness

Varying levels of awareness of thoughts, feelings, behaviors.

Circadian Rhythm

Sleep/Wake cycle, about 24 hours, can be changed by jet lag, shift work, or blindness.

Sleep

A state of consciousness in which we are aware of ourselves and our environment, but less aware than when you're awake.

Typical Sleep Needs for Infants

About 16 hours per day of sleep.

Typical Sleep Needs for Babies and Toddlers

From 6 months to 3 years: between 10 and 14 hours per day.

Typical Sleep Needs for Children (Ages 3 to 6)

Between 10 and 12 hours of sleep.

Typical Sleep Needs for Children (Ages 6 to 9)

About 10 hours of sleep.

Typical Sleep Needs for Children (Ages 9 to 12)

About 9 hours of sleep.

Typical Sleep Needs for Teenagers

About 9 hours of sleep per night.

Typical Sleep Needs for Adults

For most adults, 7 to 8 hours a night appears to be the best amount of sleep.

Typical Sleep Needs for Older Adults

Older adults are also thought to need 7-8 hours of sleep, but this sleep may be for shorter time spans and lighter.

Sleep Cycle

The normal pattern our body cycles through, about every 90 minutes, during uninterrupted sleep.

Stage 1 Sleep

Very light sleep; lasts about 10-15 minutes, with hypnagogic sensations and alpha waves.

Stage 2 Sleep

Light sleep; heart rate slows, body temperature decreases, sleep spindles and K complexes occur.

Delta Sleep (Stages 3 and 4)

Deep sleep; brain waves slow to long delta, hard to awaken, with stage 4 being the deepest sleep.

REM

Rapid Eye Movement

Paradoxical Sleep

Brain waves are active and look like you are awake, but the body is at its most relaxed.

REM rebound

If you are sleep deprived your body will go into long periods of REM to make up for the lost time.

Insomnia

Having difficulty falling and/or staying asleep for an extended period of time, leaving you tired all the time.