SOC 100 | Chapter 9: Race & Racialization

Race as a social construct

• Race is socially constructed rather than biologically determined.

• Example: Fraternal twins with different appearances due to their multiracial heritage illustrate how race is perceived rather than based on scientific criteria.

Ethnicity

• A shared set of cultural traits such as: 

  • Language 

  • Religion

  • National origin

  • Traditions

  • Historical heritage 

• Ethnic groups feel culturally and socially united 

Race

Shared or similar physical characteristics and appearance 

Race is NOT

• NOT shared history, culture or genetics 

• There are more genetic differences between 2 individuals of the same race than there are between individuals of different races 

• For example: 

  • People labeled as “caucasian” include people from various ethnic backgrounds 

  • People who feel ethnically french may be from various “races” 

Minority Groups

• Groups that have limited economic and social power in a society 

• Does not necessarily refer to numerical minority 

Visible Minorities

• Has been criticised for making whiteness the default category 

• The term is being replaced by BIPOC

  • Black, Indigenous, and people of colour

Prejudice

• A negative or hostile social attitude toward members of another group

• Based on assumptions about their characteristics 

Stereotypes

• A broad believed idea about a particular group 

• Reinforce prejudice through the assumptions that the traits are connected to race and biologically inherited 

Stereotypes | The Exception Fallacy

Once we are aware of a stereotype, we are more likely to notice examples that reinforce the stereotype 

Discrimination

• Unjust actions taken as a result of prejudice that favour one group over another group 

• Examples: 

  • Job discrimination

  • Unequal pay

  • Denial of promotion

Racism

• Consists of prejudice and discrimination plus power 

  • A white person in canada may experience prejudice or discrimination based on stereotypes 

  • This does not translate into racism at the systemic level 

Systemic Racism

• Baises deeply embedded in societal institutions and customs

• May be hard to see

• Create ongoing disadvantages for subordinate groups

White Privilege

• Inherent benefits possessed by white people in a racially unequal society

• these benefits are mostly invisible to the people who possess them 

Othering

• Occurs when we classify people as “not one of us” 

• Such people are interpreted through stereotypes about their group 

This contributes to the view that: 

• White privilege is deserved 

• Othered groups deserve poor treatment 

Discrimination in Employment

Discrimination in employment has been demonstrated by numerous studies 

For example: 

• White applicants were 3 times more likely to be offered a job than black applicants (1985)

• Significant discrimination exists based on “ethnic” names (2013)  

• Recruiters believe that an “ethnic” name means the applicant will have poor language skills (2013)

Functionalism Perspective on Race and Ethnicity

4 dysfunctions of racism:

1. Discrimination means societal resources are not maximized 

2. Racism aggravates social problems such as poverty and crime 

3. Too much money and time is put in to putting barriers to inclusion in place 

4. Prejudice and discriminations negatively impact relations between nations

Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Race and Ethnicity

Stresses the links between race, ethnicity, and identity

Symbolic Interactionism | The Contact Hypothesis

• Interracial and inter-ethnic contact between people of equal class status 

• Results In: 

• People abandoning stereotypes and becoming less prejudiced and racist 

Conflict Theory Perspective on Race and Ethnicity

Exploitation Theory: 

• Racism keeps minority group members in low paying jobs 

• This provides capital with a cheap reserve army of labour 

• Some criticize this approach as reducing racism to a class issue

Feminism Perspective on Race and Ethnicity

• Early feminists have been criticized for creating analysis that focus on white women 

  • I.e. women of colour did not get the vote along with white women in 1918

• Anti-racist feminism illustrates that gender is not the only source of oppression

Ethnic Groups in Canada | Indigenous People

• First Nations: 618 diverse nations, representing 50 cultural groups and languages.

• Métis: A mix of Indigenous and settler heritage with distinct histories and traditions.

• Inuit: Primarily located in Inuit Nunangat, consisting of 53 communities with unique cultural and linguistic traditions.

• Registered or Status "Indians": Defined by the Indian Act (1876), but many self-identified Indigenous people are not recognized under this law.

• Demographics:

  • ~10% of Canada’s population is Indigenous.

  • The Indigenous population is growing four times faster than the non-Indigenous population.

Challenges faced by Indigenous People

Compared to white, non-Indigenous Canadians, Indigenous people are:

• More likely to live in poverty.

• Less likely to obtain post-secondary education.

• More likely to suffer from heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

• Disproportionately affected by suicide and interactions with the criminal justice system.

• Experiencing higher mortality rates and lower life expectancies.

Indigenous Resistance Movements

• The Red River Rebellion

• The Oka Crisis

• Idle No More Movement

Ethnic Groups in Canada | Charter Groups

• British and French settlers established Canada’s institutions.

• Signed treaties with Indigenous groups but often failed to honor them.

• British heritage: 32.3% of the population.

• French heritage: 13.6% (80% in Quebec).

Ethnic Groups in Canada | Chinese Immigration

• Chinese Immigration: Faced discrimination after railway construction.

  • Head tax (1885)

  • Chinese Immigration Act (1923-1947)

Ethnic Groups in Canada | Black Loyalists

Fought for Britain in exchange for freedom but faced discrimination upon settling in Nova Scotia.

Ethnic Groups in Canada | Economic Disadvantages

• Canadian-born racialized minorities earn 87.4 cents for every dollar white Canadians earn.

• Higher unemployment rates.

Ethnic Groups in Canada | Social Movements

• Chinese Canadians fought to repeal immigration restrictions.

• Black Lives Matter has an active Canadian chapter.

• Muslim-Canadians mobilize against Islamophobia.

Genocide

• Deliberate extermination of a group.

• More likely when:

  • Dominant group is much larger.

  • Minority group lacks economic value.

• Examples: Beothuk killings in Canada, Holocaust, Rwandan genocide.

Expulsion

• Forced removal of a group.

• Examples:

  • Acadian deportation (Maritimes)

  • Japanese internment in WWII

Segregation

• Physical separation of groups.

• Examples:

  • Black school segregation in Canada.

  • U.S. Jim Crow laws.

  • Apartheid in South Africa.

Assimilation

• Minority groups adopt the dominant culture.

• Can be voluntary or forced.

• Example: Japanese-Canadians changed names to avoid discrimination.

Pluralism

Minority groups maintain cultural identity alongside dominant culture.

Multiculturalism

Advocates for distinct cultural identities while promoting respect for diversity.