Bio Test 1

Properties of Life

Order, Reproduction, Growth and Development, Energy Processing, Response to the Environment, Regulation, Change Over Time (Evolution)

Three Major Domains

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Biological Hierarchy

Molecule, Organelles, Cell, Tissues, Organs, Organ System, Organism, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biosphere

Smallest Living Biological Unit

Cell

Process of Science

Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Prediction, Experiment, Results and Analysis, Sharing Results

Particles Inside the Nucleus

Protons and Neutrons

Particles Around the Nucleus

Electron

What determines what element an atom is?

Protons

Isotope

Atoms with the same number of protons, same place of the periodic table, and same chemical reaction, BUT a different number of neutrons.

Radioactive Isotope

Isotopes where the nucleus becomes unstable and decays. This releases energy and makes them dangerous radioactively.

Smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element?

Atom

The 3 Subatomic Particles

Proton, Neutron, Electron

Is water polar or non-polar?

Polar

Water dissolves what type of solutes?

Polar

Electron

Directly involved in chemical activity. They live around the nucleus in the electron shell. The outermost electron shell in directly involved in chemical reactions (including interacting with other e- shells and donating, sharing, or receiving e-)

Ion

An atom that has lost or gained an electron

Ionic Bond

Two oppositely charged ions come together and trade electrons to form a (typically neutral) bond

If an atom loses an electron, what is the charge?

The ion is positive charged

If an atom gains an electron, what is the charge?

The ion is negative charged

Covalent Bond

A bond formed by atoms sharing electrons

Polar Covalent Bond

The shared electrons are more attracted to the atom with higher electronegativity, so most group in that atom. (one side has a positive charge and the other has a negative)

Non-polar Covalent Bond

The shared electrons are evenly split between the sharing atoms.

Hydrogen Bond

Hydrogen bonds to a (-) charge (multiple water molecules coming together)

Why does it take so much energy to change the temperature of water?

Because each change in temperature is associated with breaking or forming lots hydrogen bonds

Cohesion

2+ of the same kind of molecules bound with H bonds (water sticking to itself) (surface tension)

Adhesion

2+ of different kinds of molecules bound together with H bonds (water sticking to other things)

Water's Temperature Moderation

Breaks Hydrogen Bonds by heating up and forms them by cooling down

Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions (rxns) rearrange matter; Making/breaking chemical bonds

Reactants

Starting chemicals (ex. flour, eggs, baking powder)

Products

End results (ex. pancakes)

pH Scale

0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic/alkaline). Each pH unit represents a tenfold change in the concentration of H+. A buffer is a substance that minimizes changes in pH

Organic Compounds

Chemical compounds with a carbon base

Why Carbon?

Wants to form 4 Covalent Bonds; Can be single, double, or triple; Bonds to itself and other elements; Forms chains, rings, and branched molecules

Dehydration Synthesis

Forms macromolecules by creating covalent bonds (therefore releasing H2O). The synthesis links monomers together like stringing beads on a bracelet. Guided by enzymes that power the reaction.

Carbohydrates

Made up of sugar. Function is fuel for cellular work.

Monosaccharides

Simplest form of sugar

Disaccharide

Two monosaccharide monomers joined by dehydration synthesis (covalent bond). Functions are fuel for cellular work and are the raw building blocks for other carbohydrates.

Polysaccharides

Composed of thousands of monosaccharides that are stuck together through dehydration synthesis. Functions are long term energy storage and structural support.

Cellulose

Most common organic compound on the planet. In plant cell walls. Made of lots of glucose molecules bound together (polysaccharide)

Starch

The form that plants store glucose in.

Lipids

Fats; simpler than carbs; hydrophobic; mainly made of C and H atoms linked by nonpolar covalent bonds; not built from monomers

Fats

Made up of glycerol (sweet liquid) and fatty acids (long carbon-hydrogen chains that end in a carboxyl group)

Triglyceride

Three fatty acid chains linked to a single glycerol. Butter, oil, peanut butter. Can be saturated or unsaturated with hydrogen.

Saturated Fat

Fatty acid chain that is able to pick up an extra hydrogen atom, so it is saturated with hydrogen. Packs more tightly and is solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fat

Fatty acid chain that has double bonds and is not able to pick up an extra hydrogen atom, so it is not saturated with hydrogen

Phospholipids

A triglyceride but one of the three fatty acid chains attached to the glycerol is swapped out for a phosphate group. The phosphate group is a bilayer with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. These phospholipids form cell membranes

Steroids

Basic structure of 4 interconnected carbon rings. Are built upon to turn into different variations. Cholesterol (keeps our cell bilayer loose and flexible) and sex hormones

Proteins

Very diverse, involved in almost every activity in cells, built by monomers called amino acids

Amino Acids

Building blocks of protein

Amino Acid Structure

Composed of an amino group, then Hydrogen, then the carboxyl group, finally, the R group (the component that is different for amino acids)

Amino acids are linked together by ___?

Peptide bonds. The amino group of one bond bonds to the carboxyl group of another amino bond through dehydration synthesis

Enzymes

Metabolic catalysts that regulate chemical reaction in cells

Protein Structure

-3D shape determines function

-Changing the shape means it no longer functions properly

-Denaturing is the change in shape and is usually permanent

-Denaturing can be caused by heat, pH extremes, high salt, etc.

-Structure is determined by 4 level (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary)

Levels of Protein Structure

-Primary- Unique acid sequence encoded by DNA

-Secondary- Coiling into an alpha helix or folding into a beta pleated sheet; held in place by hydrogen bonds

-Tertiary- R groups interact -> overall 3D of a single polypeptide

-Quaternary- 2 or more polypeptides combine to make final proteins

Nucleic Acids

-Information storage polymers (instructions to make proteins)

-2 types of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

-Composed of nucleotide monomers

Nucleotide

Organic molecule that is the building block for DNA and RNA. It has three parts: 5 Carbon Sugars (Ribose in RNA or Deoxyribose in DNA), a Phosphate Group, and Nitrogenous Base

Polynucleotide

Chain of nucleotides. One phosphate from a nucleotide joins to the sugar of another, it undergoes dehydration synthesis, and forms a bond

DNA Nitrogenous Bases

Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)

RNA Nitrogenous Bases

C, G, A, and Uracil (U)

DNA Double Helix

-2 polynucleotide strands wrap around each other

-Bases (steps of the staircase) are held together by hydrogen bonds

-Base pair rules- A&T, C&G

Light Microscopes (LM)

Light -> Specimen ->Lense Magnify -> Eye

-Can see overall shape and structure

-Magnification 1000x

Electron Microscope (EM)

-Beam of energy, not light

-Reveals fine details of cells

-Magnification 100,000x

Cell Membrane

Fluid mosaic structure; phospholipid bilayer; selectively permeable (semipermeable); functions include maintaining cell shape, receptors for chemical messengers, enzymes, cell to cell recognition (recognizes differences between foreign and personal cells), transport (in and out of bilayer)

Cytoplasm

Solution of water and nutrients that fills the cell. Contains scaffolding called cytoskeleton.

Cytoskeleton

Network of 3 types of protein fibers. Microtubule (large and hollow), Intermediate filaments (solid, medium diameter), microfilaments (smallest diameter, solid).

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

-In animal cells

-Holds cells together in tissues

-Protects and supports the plasma membrane

-Made of proteins, polysaccharides

Endomembrane System

Connected membranes involved in synthesis, storage, and export of molecule. Includes: nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum (RER&SER), Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles, and plasma membrane

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A network of membranes that carry stuff around the cell. Phospholipid bilayer and can be rough or smooth.

Rough ER (RER)

Ribosomes attached. Makes enzymes and packages proteins

Smooth ER (SER)

Smooth network of tubes that contains enzymes used to create lipids. Also carries out cell detox and stores ions in muscles

Ribosomes

Float freely throughout the cytoplasm or are attached to the nuclear envelope. They assemble amino acids into polypeptides. Contains rRNA from nucleolus and proteins

Golgi Apparatus

Stack of membranous sacks that processes proteins and packages them. Then it sends them where they need to go. Has directionality.

Golgi Bodies

Golgi Apparatus layers

Vesicles

Sacks with a phospholipid membrane that are used for transport. Ships Golgi body products.

Lysosomes

Sacks full of digestive enzymes that break down cellular waste and debris from outside the cell

Nucleus

Doubled membrane (nuclear envelope), stores cell's DNA, tells the cell what to do based off DNA, contains 1 or more nucleolus

Nucleolus

Makes ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which combines with proteins. They are sent out and turned into ribosomes

Mitochondria

-Respiration

-Energy -> ATP

Mitochondrion Structure

-Inner and Outer Membrane divided into 2 compartments:

-Intermembrane Space- space between the inner and outer membranes

-Mitochondrial Matrix- enclosed by the inner membrane (mtDNA, Ribosomes, enzymes for cellular respiration)

Cell Wall

-Located outside of the cell membrane

-Provides support and protection

-Mostly made of cellulose

-Has plasmodesmata which allows for communication between plant cells

Chloroplasts

-Facilitates photosynthesis

-Light -> sugar and oxygen (gets rid of the oxygen)

Chloroplast Structure

-Inner and Outer Membranes

-Thylakoid- interconnected membrane sacks

-Grana- Stack of thylakoids

-Stroma- internal space between grana and outer membrane

Central Vacuole

Plant cells push water into the central vacuole which increases pressure and reinforces the plant's structure. Stores water, wastes, and pigments.

Vacuoles

In non-plant cells theses are organelles that still participate in storage, transport, and waste management.

External Interactions in Plants

A plant's cell wall is located outside the cell membrane and provides support and protection. It is mostly made of cellulose. Plasmodesmata allows from communication between plant cells (similar to the gap junction).

External Interactions in Animals

Neighboring cells interact, stick together, and communicate with each other. Animal cell junctions include:

-Tight Junctions- form leakproof sheets

-Gap junctions- allow small molecules to flow from cell to cell

-Anchoring junctions- "rivet" cells into strong tissues

Plant Cells have that Animal Cells don't:

chloroplasts, cell wall, central vacuole, and plasmodesmata

Animal Cells have that Plant Cells don't:

centrioles, lysosomes, ECM

How do Buffers Function?

They balance out the hydrogen of a base or acid. Takes on hydrogen to balance out an acid, and releases hydrogen to balance out a base

Define Organic Compound

A chemical compound that contains carbon bonded to another element

Define Isomer

Molecules that share molecular formulas but have different structures and therefore have different functions

How do acids and bases affect the hydrogen concentration of a solution?

Acids release hydrogen to a solution and bases accept hydrogen

Similarities and differences between DNA's and RNA's structure and function

-DNA has a double helix and RNA is single

-DNA has deoxyribose and RNA has ribose

-DNA is used for genetic storage and RNA is used for protein synthesis

-DNA uses thymine and RNA uses uracil

-Both have a role in genetic information, similar bases (other than T and U), and nucleotide composition

Describe the structures, functions, properties, and types of carbohydrate molecules.

Structure- Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

Functions- Short-term and long-term energy storage, forming and structuring cell walls, fuel for cellular work

Properties- Solubility

Types- Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

Describe the structures, functions, properties, and types of lipid molecules.

Structure- Mostly made of C and H linked by nonpolar covalent bonds

Functions- Long-term energy storage, hormone production, and main component in cell membranes

Properties- Hydrophobic

Types- Fats (triglyceride, unsaturated, saturated), Phospholipids, Steroids

Describe the structures, functions, properties, and types of protein molecules.

Structure- long chains of amino acids that can take on many forms

Functions- acts as enzymes, hormones, structural components, contractile components, transport, and receptors

Properties- Solubility

Types- primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary

Describe the two parts of cell theory

-All living things are made of cells-

-All cells come from other cells-

Why are there upper limits to cell size?

-Needs to be large enough to hold organelles, cytoplasm, etc.

-Needs to be small enough for efficient transport across plasma membrane

-A small cell has a higher ratio of surface area to its interior volume

-As a cell gets larger, the volume increases much faster than the surface area