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pork barrel spending
legislation that directs specific funds to projects within districts or states.
logrolling
trading of votes on legislation by members of Congress to get their earmarks passed into legislation.
oversight
efforts by Congress to ensure that executive branch agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their officials, are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals.
constituency
a body of voters in a given area who elect a representative or senator.
apportionment
the process of determining the number of representatives for each state using census data.
redistricting
states’ redrawing of boundaries of electoral districts following each census.
gerrymandering
the intentional use of redistricting to benefit a specific interest or group of voters.
partisan gerrymandering
drawing of district boundaries into strange shapes to benefit a political party.
majority-minority district
a district in which voters of a minority ethnicity constitute an electoral majority within that electoral district.
malapportionment
the uneven distribution of the population among legislative districts.
incumbency
being already in office as opposed to running for the first time.
incumbency advantage
institutional advantages held by those already in office who are trying to fend off challengers in an election.
Speaker of the House
the leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by an election of its members.
political action committee [PAC]
an organization that raises money for candidates and campaigns.
House majority leader
the person who is the second in command of the House of Representatives.
whip
a member of Congress, chosen by his or her party members, whose job is to ensure party unity and discipline.
minority leader
the head of the party with the second-highest number of seats in Congress, chosen by the party’s members.
Senate majority leader
the person who has the most power in the Senate and is the head of the party with the most seats.
committee chair
leader of a congressional committee who has authority over the committee’s agenda.
discharge petition
a motion filed by a member of Congress to move a bill out of committee and onto the floor of the House of Representatives for a vote.
House Rules Committee
a powerful committee that determines when a bill will be subject to debate and vote on the House floor, how long the debate will last, and whether amendments will be allowed on the floor.
Committee of the Whole
Consists of all members of the House and meets in the House chamber but is governed by different rules, making it easier to consider complex and controversial legislation.
hold
a delay placed on legislation by a senator who objects to a bill.
unanimous consent agreement
an agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for consideration of a bill.
filibuster
a tactic through which an individual senator may use the right of unlimited debate to delay a motion or postpone action on a piece of legislation.
cloture
a procedure through which senators can end debate on a bill and proceed to action, provided 60 senators agree to it.
veto
the power of a president to reject a bill passed by Congress, sending it back to the originating branch with objections.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
the executive branch office that assists the president in setting national spending priorities.
entitlement program
a program that provides benefits for those who qualify under the law, regardless of income.
mandatory spending
spending required by existing laws that is “locked in” the budget.
discretionary spending
spending for programs and policies at the discretion of Congress and the president.
budget surplus
the amount of money remaining when the government takes in more than it spends.
budget deficit
the shortfall when a government takes in less money than it spends.
national debt
the total amount of money owed by the federal government.
delegate role
the idea that the main duty of a member of Congress is to carry out constituents’ wishes.
trustee role
the idea that members of Congress should act as trustees, making decisions based on their knowledge and judgment.
politico role
representation where members of Congress balance their choices with the interests of their constituents and parties in making decisions.
bipartisanship
agreement between the parties to work together in Congress to pass legislation.
gridlock
a slowdown or halt in Congress’s ability to legislate and overcome divisions, especially those based on partisanship.
divided government
control of the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress split between the two major parties.
lame duck period
period at the end of a presidential term when Congress may block presidential initiatives and nominees.
executive branch
the branch of government charged with putting the nation’s laws into effect.
formal (or enumerated) powers
powers expressly granted in the Constitution.
informal powers
powers not laid out in the Constitution but used to carry out presidential duties.
treaty
an agreement with a foreign government negotiated by the president and requiring a two-thirds vote in the Senate to ratify.
State of the Union Address
the annual speech from the president to Congress updating that branch on the state of national affairs.
veto
formal rejection by the president of a bill that has passed both houses of Congress.
pocket veto
an informal veto caused when the president chooses not to sign a bill within ten days, during a time when Congress has adjourned at the end of a session.
presidential pardon
presidential authority to release individuals convicted from a crime of legal consequences and forgive an individual and set aside punishment for a crime.
executive privilege
a right claimed by presidents to keep certain conversations, records, and transcripts confidential from outside scrutiny, especially that of Congress.
executive agreement
an agreement between a president and another nation that does not have the same durability in the American system as a treaty but does not require Senate ratification.
signing statement
written comments issued by presidents while signing a bill into law that usually consist of political statements or reasons for signing the bill but that may also include a president’s interpretation of the law itself.
executive order
policy directives issued by presidents that do not require congressional approval.
War Powers Resolution
a law passed over President Nixon’s veto that restricts the power of the president to maintain troops in combat for more than sixty days without congressional authorization.
impeachment
the process of removing a president from office, with articles of impeachment issued by a majority vote in the House of Representatives, followed by a trial in the Senate, with a two-thirds vote necessary to convict and remove.
Executive Office of the President
a collection of offices within the White House organization designed mainly to provide information to the president.
bargaining and persuasion
informal tool used by the president to persuade members of Congress to support his policy initiatives.
bully pulpit
presidential appeals to the public to pressure other branches of government to support his policies.
going public
a tactic through which presidents reach out directly to the American people with the hope that the people will, in turn, put pressure upon their representatives and senators to press for a president’s policy goals.
federal judiciary
the branch of the federal government that interprets and applies the laws of the nation.
Supreme Court
the highest level of the federal judiciary, which was established in Article III of the Constitution and serves as the highest court in the nation.
original jurisdiction
the authority of a court to act as the first court to hear a case, which includes the finding of facts in the case.
appellate jurisdiction
the authority of a court to hear and review decisions made by lower courts in that system.
Federalist No. 78
argument by Alexander Hamilton that the federal judiciary would be unlikely to infringe upon rights and liberties but would serve as a check on the other two branches.
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
a Supreme Court decision that established judicial review over federal laws.
judicial review
the authority of the Supreme Court to strike down a law or executive action if it conflicts with the Constitution.
criminal law
a category of law covering actions determined to harm the community.
civil law
a category of law covering cases involving private rights and relationships between individuals and groups.
federal district courts
the lowest level of the federal judiciary; these courts usually have original jurisdiction in cases that start at the federal level.
federal courts of appeals
the middle level of the federal judiciary; these courts review and hear appeals from the federal district courts.
precedent
a judicial decision that guides future courts in handling similar cases.
stare decisis
letting a previous decision stand.
majority opinion
binding Supreme Court opinions, which serve as precedent for future cases.
concurring opinion
an opinion that agrees with the majority decision, offering different or additional reasoning, that does not serve as precedent.
dissenting opinion
an opinion that disagrees with the majority opinion and does not serve as precedent.
judicial restraint
a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should be cautious in overturning laws.
judicial activism
a philosophy of constitutional interpretation that justices should wield the power of judicial review, sometimes creating bold new policies.
federal bureaucracy
the departments and agencies within the executive branch that carry out the laws of the nation.
bureaucrat
an official employed within a government bureaucracy.
political patronage
filling of administrative positions as a reward for support, rather than solely on merit.
Pendleton Act
an act of Congress that created the first United States Civil Service Commission to draw up and enforce rules on hiring, promotion, and tenure of office within the civil service (also known as Civil Service Reform Act of 1883).
federal civil service
the merit-based bureaucracy, excluding the armed forces and political appointments.
merit system
a system of hiring and promotion based on competitive testing results, education, and other qualifications rather than politics and personal connections.
iron triangle
coordinated and mutually beneficial activities of the bureaucracy, Congress, and interest groups to achieve shared policy goals.
issue network
webs of influence between interest groups, policymakers, and policy advocates.
implementation
the bureaucracy’s role in putting into action the laws that Congress has passed.
bureaucratic discretion
the power to decide how a law is implemented and what Congress meant when it passed the law.
regulation
the process through which the federal bureaucracy makes rules that have the force of law, to carry out the laws passed by Congress.
bureaucratic adjudication
when the federal bureaucracy settles disputes between parties that arise over the implementation of federal laws or determines which individuals or groups are covered under a regulation or program.
