Chapter 2: Social Perception & Understanding of Self & Others: Perception, Personality & Attitude

1. Social Perception & Understanding of Self & Others

• Focuses on how people perceive, understand, and form impressions of others and themselves.

Includes:

• Perception – How we process sensory information and form impressions.

• Personality – Traits that define individual differences.

• Attitude – Learned tendencies to respond positively or negatively to objects, people, or events.

2. Perception

Definition:

• A cognitive process that helps people make sense of stimuli from the environment.

• Involves all five senses – sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing.

• Determines what stimuli to pay attention to and what to ignore.

Sources of Stimuli:

• People, events, objects, ideas.

Purpose:

• Helps individuals adapt to changing environments.

Important Concepts:

• Target: The object/person being perceived.

• Threshold: Minimum level of information needed for a person to notice the target.

Types of Thresholds:

• Detection threshold: Point when you first notice something has changed.

• Recognition threshold: Point when you can identify the target or the change.

Perceptual Process:

• High-contrast targets (bold colors, loud sounds) are quickly noticed.

• Ambiguous targets (unclear shapes or faint sounds) take longer to recognize.

• People notice positive stimuli faster than negative ones.

• Example: Achievement-focused employees quickly notice promotion announcements.

Perceptual Defense:

• Tendency to block or filter out unpleasant stimuli.

• Example: Ignoring negative feedback from a supervisor.

Perceptual Set:

• Pre-existing beliefs or experiences shape perception.

• Example: If you expect someone to be rude, you are more likely to interpret their actions as rude.

Perceptual Errors:

• Stereotypes: Attributing traits to individuals based on group membership.

• Example:

  • American university students = energetic.

  • Russian university students = orderly and obedient.

3. Self-Perception: A View of Self

• Self-perception develops from social interactions across different settings, including online.

• Three components of self-perception:

  • Self-concept – What you believe about yourself.

  • Self-esteem – How you feel about yourself.

  • Self-presentation – How you present yourself to others.

Factors Shaping Self-Concept:

• Observing your own behavior.

• Recalling significant life events.

• Social context – How others react to you.

Self-Evaluation:

• People observe their actions the way they observe others' actions.

• People compare themselves to others in similar situations to judge their own abilities.

4. Self-Esteem

• Emotional aspect of self-perception.

• People with low self-esteem:

  • Struggle with challenges.

  • Don’t handle stress well.

• People with high self-esteem:

  • Adapt better.

  • Feel more confident.

5. Self-Awareness

• Awareness of yourself varies.

• Two types:

  1. Private self-consciousness: Focus on personal feelings and inner standards.

  2. Public self-consciousness: Focus on behaving according to social expectations.

6. Self-Presentation

• Strategies used to shape how others see you.

• Goals:

  • Gain approval.

  • Influence others.

  • Ensure others form accurate impressions.

• Some people adapt behavior to fit situations.

• Others behave consistently, true to themselves, regardless of setting.

7. Social Perception: Understanding Others

• Process of forming impressions of others.

• Involves observing:

  • Person’s appearance and behavior.

  • The surrounding situation.

First Impressions:

• Based on physical traits (height, weight, hair color).

• Stereotypes often apply:

  • Thin men = tense and stubborn.

  • Blond women = fun-loving.

  • Neatly dressed = responsible.

Preconceptions from Situations:

• Expectations develop from past experiences.

• Example: Meeting someone for the first time usually involves a handshake.

8. Attribution Processes

• People try to explain why others behave the way they do.

• Usually starts with a quick personal attribution followed by adjustment for situational factors.

Types of Attribution:

• Personal Attribution: Behavior caused by personal traits (e.g., hard-working student).

• Situational Attribution: Behavior caused by external factors (e.g., working hard for a grade).

Three Types of Information Used:

Type	Explanation
Consensus	Compare the person’s behavior to others in the same situation.
Distinctiveness	Compare the person’s behavior across different situations.
Consistency	Compare the person’s behavior across different times in the same situation.

Attribution Patterns:

• Personal attribution = Low consensus & distinctiveness, high consistency.

• Situational attribution = High consensus & distinctiveness, low consistency.

Errors:

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasize personal factors, underestimate situational ones.

• False Consensus Effect: Overestimate how much others share your views.

9. Attitudes

• Definition: A learned tendency to respond positively or negatively toward something.

• Attitude Objects: Physical objects, people, events, ideas.

Components:

• Cognitive: Beliefs about the object.

• Affective: Emotional response.

• Behavioral: Intended actions or expressed opinions.

Common Work Attitudes:

• Organizational commitment.

• Job satisfaction.

• Job involvement.

Attitude Formation:

• Based on beliefs and information about the object.

• Shaped by:

  • Family upbringing.

  • Peer groups.

  • Workgroups.

  • Overall social experiences.

10. Attitude Change

• Influenced by:

  • Persuasive communication (e.g., advertising).

  • Social norms (pressures from groups).

  • Cognitive dissonance (discomfort from conflicting beliefs).

Persuasion Process:

1. Gain attention.

2. Ensure understanding.

3. Gain acceptance.

4. Ensure retention.

Social Influence:

• People adjust attitudes to match valued group norms.

Cognitive Dissonance:

• People feel tension when holding conflicting beliefs.

• They are motivated to reduce tension by:

  • Changing beliefs.

  • Aligning attitudes and actions.

11. Personality

• Definition: Set of traits and characteristics that influence behavior.

• Usually stabilizes around age 30.

Theories of Personality Formation:

• Cognitive Theory: Personality develops through thinking patterns formed over time.

• Learning Theory: Personality develops from social interactions.

• Biological Theory: Personality has genetic and evolutionary influences.

12. The Big Five Personality Dimensions

Dimension	High	Low
Extroversion	Talkative, outgoing	Reserved, introverted
Emotional Stability	Calm, relaxed	Worried, anxious
Agreeableness	Cooperative, tolerant	Suspicious, cold
Conscientiousness	Organized, responsible	Careless, unreliable
Openness to Experience	Curious, imaginative	Conventional, routine

13. Personality Types

• Locus of Control:

  • Internal – You control your outcomes.

  • External – Fate/luck controls outcomes.

• Machiavellianism:

  • Manipulative, distrustful, focused on personal gain.

• Type A Personality:

  • Competitive, impatient, aggressive (higher heart disease risk).

• Type B Personality:

  • Relaxed, easy-going.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

• Personality sorted into 16 types based on:

  • Extroverted (E) - Introverted (I)

  • Sensing (S) - Intuitive (N)

  • Thinking (T) - Feeling (F)

  • Perceiving (P) - Judging (J)