AP Psychology Unit 3

Cramming for Unit 3 Test

Teratogens

Harmful substances that can cause birth defects during prenatal development, such as alcohol, drugs, or certain viruses.

Reflexes

Automatic, unlearned reactions babies are born with, like sucking or grasping.

Rooting reflex

When a baby’s cheek is touched, it turns its head and opens its mouth to find food.

Fine motor coordination

Small muscle movements, like writing or picking up tiny objects.

Gross motor coordination

Large muscle movements, like crawling, walking, or jumping.

Maturation

Natural growth process that happens automatically as the body and brain develop.

Visual cliff

An experiment that shows infants can perceive depth and avoid a “drop.”

Critical periods

Specific times when something must be learned or developed, like vision in infants, and if they don’t develop it in that time period it is rare to do so after.

Sensitive periods

Times when learning a skill (like language) is easier but still possible later.

Imprinting

When some animals form early attachments (like baby ducks following their mother).

Growth spurt

A sudden, rapid increase in height and weight during puberty.

Puberty

Time when the body becomes sexually mature and capable of reproduction.

Primary sex characteristics

Reproductive organs and structures (testes, ovaries).

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical traits that appear during puberty but aren’t needed for reproduction (voice changes, facial hair, breasts).

Menarche

A girl’s first menstrual period.

Spermarche

A boy’s first ejaculation.

Menopause

The natural end of a woman’s reproductive years.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize information and experiences.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas (thinking a cat is a “dog”).

Accommodation

Changing existing schemas to include new information (realizing cats are different from dogs).

Sensorimotor stage

(0–2 yrs) Learn through senses and movement; develop object permanence.

Preoperational stage

(2–7 yrs) Use symbols and pretend play; show egocentrism and animism.

Concrete operational stage

(7–11 yrs) Begin logical thinking about real events; understand conservation and reversibility.

Formal operational stage

(12+ yrs) Develop abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Object permanence

Knowing something exists even when you can’t see it.

Pretend play

Using imagination (like pretending a stick is a sword).

Conservation

Understanding that changing shape doesn’t change amount.

Reversibility

Understanding that actions can be undone (2 + 3 = 5, 5 – 3 = 2).

Animism

Believing nonliving things are alive or have feelings.

Egocentrism

Can’t see from another person’s point of view.

Theory of mind

Understanding that others have their own thoughts and feelings.

Systematic thinking

Step-by-step logical problem-solving (develops in formal operational stage).

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

The range of tasks a learner can do with help from someone more skilled.

Scaffolding

Support and guidance given to help a learner develop new skills, gradually reduced as they improve.

Phonemes

Smallest sound units in a language (like “b” in bat).

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in a word (“un-,” “-ed”).

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences.

Syntax

Rules for word order in sentences (grammar).

Grammar

Rules that structure a language.

Cooing

Early stage of speech where babies make vowel sounds.

Babbling

Stage where babies combine consonants and vowels (“ba-ba”).

One-word stage

Single words represent whole ideas (“milk!”).

Telegraphic speech

Short, simple phrases that use mostly nouns and verbs (“want cookie”).

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules too broadly (“I goed” instead of “I went”).

Ecological systems theory

Development is influenced by different layers of environment.

Microsystem

Immediate environment (family, school, peers).

Mesosystem

Connections between microsystems (like parent–teacher interaction).

Exosystem

Indirect environment (parent’s job, local politics).

Macrosystem

Culture, values, and laws of society.

Chronosystem

Effects of time and historical context on development.

Authoritarian parenting

Very strict, controlling, little warmth.

Authoritative parenting

Firm but caring; explains rules; best outcomes.

Permissive parenting

Few rules, allows freedom; can lead to lack of self-discipline.

Attachment

Emotional bond between child and caregiver.

Secure attachment

Child feels safe and trusts caregiver.

Avoidant attachment

Child avoids closeness.

Anxious attachment

Clingy and insecure.

Disorganized attachment

Confused, inconsistent behavior.

Separation anxiety

Distress when a caregiver leaves.

Temperament

Inborn emotional style or personality. (Easy, Medium, Hard)

Stage theory of psychosocial development (Erikson)

Each life stage has a key conflict to resolve.

Trust vs. mistrust

(Infancy) Learning to trust caregivers.

Autonomy vs. shame/doubt

(Toddler) Developing independence.

Initiative vs. guilt

(Preschool) Taking initiative or feeling guilty for trying.

Industry vs. inferiority

(School age) Feeling competent from success in school/work.

Identity vs. role confusion

(Teen years) Finding a sense of self.

Intimacy vs. isolation

(Young adult) Forming close relationships or feeling lonely.

Generativity vs. stagnation

(Middle adult) Helping the next generation or feeling stuck.

Integrity vs. despair

(Late adult) Looking back on life with satisfaction or regret.

Imaginary audience

Teens think everyone’s watching/judging them.

Personal fable

Teens believe they’re unique and invincible.

Social clock

Cultural timeline for major life events (marriage, career).

Emerging adulthood

Transition period from teen to full adult (late teens–20s).

Behavioral perspective

Learning explained by observable behaviors and environment.

Classical conditioning

Learning by associating two stimuli (Pavlov’s dogs).

Association

Connection between two things that happen together.

Acquisition

The process of learning a new response

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Naturally causes a response (food).

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Natural reaction to UCS (salivating).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Neutral thing that becomes associated with UCS (bell).

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to CS (salivate at bell).

Extinction

When a learned response fades away.

Spontaneous recovery

When a learned response returns after extinction.

Stimulus discrimination

Responding differently to similar stimuli.

Stimulus generalization

Responding the same to similar stimuli.

Higher-order conditioning

Adding a second neutral stimulus to the chain (light → bell → food).

Counterconditioning

Replacing a negative response with a positive one.

Taste aversion

Learning to avoid food after getting sick from it once.

One-trial learning

Learning something after a single experience.

Biological preparedness

Easier to learn things important for survival (like fear of snakes).

Habituation

Getting used to something after repeated exposure.

Operant conditioning

Learning from rewards and punishments (Skinner).

Law of Effect

Behaviors with positive outcomes are more likely to repeat.

Reinforcement

Increases behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something good (reward).

Negative reinforcement

Removing something bad (no chores).

Punishment

Decreases behavior.

Primary reinforcer

Natural rewards (food, water).

Secondary reinforcer

Learned rewards (money, praise).

Reinforcement schedules

How often behavior is rewarded.