Earth Science Midterm Review

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Vocabulary flashcards covering cosmology, Earth’s habitability, subsystems, nutrient cycles, rocks, minerals, mining, fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric energy for midterm review.

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68 Terms

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Big Bang Theory

Scientific explanation that the universe began from an extremely hot, dense state about 14 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since.

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Radiation Era

Early phase of the universe after the Big Bang when energy existed mainly as radiation before matter dominated.

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Temperature (Life-supporting factor)

Range of thermal conditions on Earth that allows liquid water, stable molecules, and biochemical reactions necessary for life.

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Liquid Water

Universal solvent present on Earth’s surface that supports metabolism, regulates climate, and enables nutrient transport for living organisms.

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Atmosphere (as life factor)

Layer of gases surrounding Earth that provides oxygen, moderates temperature, blocks harmful radiation, and enables weather and climate.

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Energy (Life-supporting factor)

Input of solar radiation or chemical energy (e.g., chemosynthesis at hydrothermal vents) that powers biological processes.

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Nutrients (Life-supporting factor)

Chemical elements recycled through Earth systems that organisms need for growth, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

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Atmosphere (Subsystem)

Gaseous envelope of Earth composed mainly of N₂, O₂, Ar, CO₂, extending up to ~10 000 km.

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Hydrosphere

All water on Earth in liquid, solid, or vapor form, moving via currents and the water cycle.

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Geosphere

Solid portion of Earth including rocks, minerals, and landforms from the crust to the core.

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Biosphere

Global sum of all living organisms and the environments they inhabit.

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Nitrogen Cycle

Biogeochemical cycle in which atmospheric N₂ is fixed by bacteria, assimilated by organisms, and returned via decomposition and denitrification.

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Phosphorus Cycle

Movement of phosphorus through rocks, soil, water, and living things without a significant atmospheric component.

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Sulfur Cycle

Circulation of sulfur through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere including volcanic emissions and human inputs.

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Rock

Naturally occurring aggregate of minerals or mineraloids forming the Earth’s lithosphere.

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Rock Cycle

Series of processes—melting, cooling, weathering, erosion, compaction, heat, and pressure—that transform rock types over time.

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Igneous Rock

Rock formed when magma or lava cools and solidifies; may be intrusive or extrusive.

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Intrusive Igneous Rock

Igneous rock that crystallizes slowly beneath Earth’s surface, producing large crystals.

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Extrusive Igneous Rock

Igneous rock that solidifies quickly at the surface, often with small crystals or glassy texture.

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Sedimentary Rock

Rock formed from compaction and cementation of sediments; commonly contains fossils.

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Metamorphic Rock

Rock altered by heat, pressure, or chemically active fluids without melting, recrystallizing original minerals.

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Mineral

Naturally occurring, inorganic, homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure.

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Luster

Quality of light reflected from a mineral’s surface (e.g., metallic, glassy).

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Streak

Color of a mineral’s powdered form obtained by scratching it across a porcelain plate.

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Hardness

Resistance of a mineral to scratching, measured by Mohs scale.

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Cleavage

Tendency of a mineral to break along flat planes related to its crystal structure.

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Crystal Habit

Characteristic external shape of a mineral crystal or aggregate.

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Quartz

Glassy, hard mineral with white streak; pure form is clear, colored varieties due to impurities.

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Feldspar

Light-colored, glassy luster mineral group with formula XAl(1-2)Si₃O₈ where X = K, Na, or Ca.

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Mica

Group of soft, sheet-silicate minerals that split into thin elastic flakes.

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Pyroxene

Dark-colored inosilicate minerals of composition XY(Si,Al)₂O₆; common in igneous rocks.

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Amphibole

Dark, elongated silicate minerals (e.g., hornblende) with glassy luster in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

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Olivine

Olive-green silicate mineral (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄, used as gemstone peridot.

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Native Elements

Minerals composed of a single element in uncombined form, classified as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids.

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Silicates

Largest mineral group composed of Si and O, forming most of Earth’s crust and mantle.

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Oxides

Minerals formed by metal combined with oxygen, ranging from ores like bauxite to gems like ruby.

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Sulfides

Minerals of sulfur combined with a metal; often dense ores of Zn, Pb, Cu, Sn.

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Sulfates

Minerals containing sulfate anion (SO₄²⁻) with metals; typically soft and translucent.

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Halides

Minerals formed from halogen elements bonded to metals; soft and water-soluble (e.g., halite).

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Carbonates

Minerals with carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻) and a metal; readily dissolve in acid water.

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Phosphates

Mineral group containing PO₄³⁻, often brightly colored and formed by weathering of other minerals.

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Mineraloids

Naturally occurring, mineral-like substances lacking crystalline structure, e.g., opal, obsidian, amber.

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Surface Mining

Extraction of ore minerals near Earth’s surface using methods like open-pit, strip, and dredging.

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Open-pit Mining

Surface mining technique creating a large pit by blasting and excavating to recover minerals.

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Strip Mining

Surface mining that removes sequential strips of overburden to expose and extract shallow deposits.

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Dredging

Mining method that scoops minerals from underwater sediments in rivers or seas.

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Underground Mining

Mineral extraction through tunnels below Earth’s surface; costlier and riskier than surface mining.

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Sampling (Mineral Processing)

Removal of a representative portion of ore for analysis.

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Analysis (Mineral Processing)

Chemical and physical evaluation of ore to determine valuable components.

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Comminution

Crushing and grinding of ore to liberate valuable minerals.

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Concentration (Ore Dressing)

Separation of valuable minerals from gangue material.

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Dewatering

Removal of water from mineral concentrates via filtration, sedimentation, and drying.

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Fossil Fuel

Energy resource formed from ancient organic remains, including coal, oil, and natural gas.

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Coal

Solid fossil fuel from compressed plant material; primary fuel for electricity generation.

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Anthracite

Highest-rank, hard black coal with highest carbon content and low volatility.

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Bituminous Coal

Common coal rank with high heating value, shiny layers, used widely for power generation.

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Subbituminous Coal

Dull black coal rank with higher heating value than lignite but lower than bituminous.

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Lignite

Lowest rank “brown coal” with least carbon content and energy density.

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Oil (Petroleum)

Liquid fossil fuel derived mainly from ancient marine algae buried in sediments; source of fuels and petrochemicals.

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Natural Gas

Gaseous fossil fuel rich in methane, cleanest-burning of the fossil fuels, formed in sedimentary rocks.

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Geothermal Energy

Heat energy extracted from Earth’s interior to generate electricity or provide direct heating.

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Dry Steam Power Plant

Geothermal facility that channels natural steam directly to a turbine to produce electricity.

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Flash Steam Power Plant

Plant where high-temperature water flashes to steam in a low-pressure tank, driving turbines.

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Binary-Cycle Power Plant

Geothermal plant using moderate-temperature fluids to heat a secondary “binary” fluid that vaporizes and spins turbines.

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Hydroelectric Energy

Generation of electricity from the kinetic and potential energy of flowing or falling water.

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Impoundment Facility

Hydropower system with a dam creating a reservoir; water released through turbines generates electricity.

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Pumped Storage Facility

Hydropower plant that stores energy by pumping water to an upper reservoir for later release through turbines.

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Run-of-River Facility

Hydropower setup diverting part of natural river flow through turbines without large reservoirs.