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Vocabulary flashcards covering cosmology, Earth’s habitability, subsystems, nutrient cycles, rocks, minerals, mining, fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric energy for midterm review.
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Big Bang Theory
Scientific explanation that the universe began from an extremely hot, dense state about 14 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since.
Radiation Era
Early phase of the universe after the Big Bang when energy existed mainly as radiation before matter dominated.
Temperature (Life-supporting factor)
Range of thermal conditions on Earth that allows liquid water, stable molecules, and biochemical reactions necessary for life.
Liquid Water
Universal solvent present on Earth’s surface that supports metabolism, regulates climate, and enables nutrient transport for living organisms.
Atmosphere (as life factor)
Layer of gases surrounding Earth that provides oxygen, moderates temperature, blocks harmful radiation, and enables weather and climate.
Energy (Life-supporting factor)
Input of solar radiation or chemical energy (e.g., chemosynthesis at hydrothermal vents) that powers biological processes.
Nutrients (Life-supporting factor)
Chemical elements recycled through Earth systems that organisms need for growth, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Atmosphere (Subsystem)
Gaseous envelope of Earth composed mainly of N₂, O₂, Ar, CO₂, extending up to ~10 000 km.
Hydrosphere
All water on Earth in liquid, solid, or vapor form, moving via currents and the water cycle.
Geosphere
Solid portion of Earth including rocks, minerals, and landforms from the crust to the core.
Biosphere
Global sum of all living organisms and the environments they inhabit.
Nitrogen Cycle
Biogeochemical cycle in which atmospheric N₂ is fixed by bacteria, assimilated by organisms, and returned via decomposition and denitrification.
Phosphorus Cycle
Movement of phosphorus through rocks, soil, water, and living things without a significant atmospheric component.
Sulfur Cycle
Circulation of sulfur through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere including volcanic emissions and human inputs.
Rock
Naturally occurring aggregate of minerals or mineraloids forming the Earth’s lithosphere.
Rock Cycle
Series of processes—melting, cooling, weathering, erosion, compaction, heat, and pressure—that transform rock types over time.
Igneous Rock
Rock formed when magma or lava cools and solidifies; may be intrusive or extrusive.
Intrusive Igneous Rock
Igneous rock that crystallizes slowly beneath Earth’s surface, producing large crystals.
Extrusive Igneous Rock
Igneous rock that solidifies quickly at the surface, often with small crystals or glassy texture.
Sedimentary Rock
Rock formed from compaction and cementation of sediments; commonly contains fossils.
Metamorphic Rock
Rock altered by heat, pressure, or chemically active fluids without melting, recrystallizing original minerals.
Mineral
Naturally occurring, inorganic, homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure.
Luster
Quality of light reflected from a mineral’s surface (e.g., metallic, glassy).
Streak
Color of a mineral’s powdered form obtained by scratching it across a porcelain plate.
Hardness
Resistance of a mineral to scratching, measured by Mohs scale.
Cleavage
Tendency of a mineral to break along flat planes related to its crystal structure.
Crystal Habit
Characteristic external shape of a mineral crystal or aggregate.
Quartz
Glassy, hard mineral with white streak; pure form is clear, colored varieties due to impurities.
Feldspar
Light-colored, glassy luster mineral group with formula XAl(1-2)Si₃O₈ where X = K, Na, or Ca.
Mica
Group of soft, sheet-silicate minerals that split into thin elastic flakes.
Pyroxene
Dark-colored inosilicate minerals of composition XY(Si,Al)₂O₆; common in igneous rocks.
Amphibole
Dark, elongated silicate minerals (e.g., hornblende) with glassy luster in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Olivine
Olive-green silicate mineral (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄, used as gemstone peridot.
Native Elements
Minerals composed of a single element in uncombined form, classified as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids.
Silicates
Largest mineral group composed of Si and O, forming most of Earth’s crust and mantle.
Oxides
Minerals formed by metal combined with oxygen, ranging from ores like bauxite to gems like ruby.
Sulfides
Minerals of sulfur combined with a metal; often dense ores of Zn, Pb, Cu, Sn.
Sulfates
Minerals containing sulfate anion (SO₄²⁻) with metals; typically soft and translucent.
Halides
Minerals formed from halogen elements bonded to metals; soft and water-soluble (e.g., halite).
Carbonates
Minerals with carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻) and a metal; readily dissolve in acid water.
Phosphates
Mineral group containing PO₄³⁻, often brightly colored and formed by weathering of other minerals.
Mineraloids
Naturally occurring, mineral-like substances lacking crystalline structure, e.g., opal, obsidian, amber.
Surface Mining
Extraction of ore minerals near Earth’s surface using methods like open-pit, strip, and dredging.
Open-pit Mining
Surface mining technique creating a large pit by blasting and excavating to recover minerals.
Strip Mining
Surface mining that removes sequential strips of overburden to expose and extract shallow deposits.
Dredging
Mining method that scoops minerals from underwater sediments in rivers or seas.
Underground Mining
Mineral extraction through tunnels below Earth’s surface; costlier and riskier than surface mining.
Sampling (Mineral Processing)
Removal of a representative portion of ore for analysis.
Analysis (Mineral Processing)
Chemical and physical evaluation of ore to determine valuable components.
Comminution
Crushing and grinding of ore to liberate valuable minerals.
Concentration (Ore Dressing)
Separation of valuable minerals from gangue material.
Dewatering
Removal of water from mineral concentrates via filtration, sedimentation, and drying.
Fossil Fuel
Energy resource formed from ancient organic remains, including coal, oil, and natural gas.
Coal
Solid fossil fuel from compressed plant material; primary fuel for electricity generation.
Anthracite
Highest-rank, hard black coal with highest carbon content and low volatility.
Bituminous Coal
Common coal rank with high heating value, shiny layers, used widely for power generation.
Subbituminous Coal
Dull black coal rank with higher heating value than lignite but lower than bituminous.
Lignite
Lowest rank “brown coal” with least carbon content and energy density.
Oil (Petroleum)
Liquid fossil fuel derived mainly from ancient marine algae buried in sediments; source of fuels and petrochemicals.
Natural Gas
Gaseous fossil fuel rich in methane, cleanest-burning of the fossil fuels, formed in sedimentary rocks.
Geothermal Energy
Heat energy extracted from Earth’s interior to generate electricity or provide direct heating.
Dry Steam Power Plant
Geothermal facility that channels natural steam directly to a turbine to produce electricity.
Flash Steam Power Plant
Plant where high-temperature water flashes to steam in a low-pressure tank, driving turbines.
Binary-Cycle Power Plant
Geothermal plant using moderate-temperature fluids to heat a secondary “binary” fluid that vaporizes and spins turbines.
Hydroelectric Energy
Generation of electricity from the kinetic and potential energy of flowing or falling water.
Impoundment Facility
Hydropower system with a dam creating a reservoir; water released through turbines generates electricity.
Pumped Storage Facility
Hydropower plant that stores energy by pumping water to an upper reservoir for later release through turbines.
Run-of-River Facility
Hydropower setup diverting part of natural river flow through turbines without large reservoirs.