AP Psych Vocab Unit 1

Empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most psychologists agree with (1) but not (2)

Humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential

cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

• how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

• memories, thoughts, expectations, interpretation, emotions, knowledge

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior and its exploration by principles of learning

• rewards and punishments

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neutral hormonal) and psychological processes

• how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; how genes combine with environment to influence individual differences

• anything to do with the body

Psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

• childhood trauma

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

industrial-organizational (l/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

human factors psychology

a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all- along phenomenon.)

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note- Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from - 1.00 to +1.00).

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo [pluh-SEE-bo- Latin for "I shall please"]

effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell- shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize— to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Falsifiable (hypothesis)

it must at least in principle be possible to make an observation that would disprove the hypothesis.

Bimodal distribution

a type of distribution characterized by two distinct peaks. It indicates the presence of a subgroup with different characteristics compared to the majority group.

Convenience sampling

using respondents who are “convenient” to the researcher. There is no pattern whatsoever in acquiring these respondents—they may be recruited merely asking people who are present in the street, in a public building, or in a workplace, for example.

Generalizability

a measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations.

Social desirability bias

response bias that occurs when survey respondents provide answers according to society's expectations, rather than their own beliefs or experiences.

qualitative research

a method of research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences.

quantitative research

the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

likert scales

a rating scale used to measure opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. It consists of a statement or a question, followed by a series of five or seven answer statements.

peer review

a quality control process used by publications to help ensure that only high quality, methodologically sound information is presented in the publication.

effect sizes

measures the strength of the relationship between two variables on a numeric scale.The larger the effect size, the more practical significance.

informed assent

the process whereby minors may agree to participate in clinical trials.