Psychology All Terms

Dualism

Belief that the body and mind are separate entities, with the mind surviving after death; also posits innate ideas

Monism

Theory that the mind and body are different aspects of the same entity, with ideas resulting from experiences

Rene Descartes

Philosopher interested in the body-mind connection, conducted animal dissections, contributing to the birth of psychology

Francis Bacon

Father of modern science, used the scientific method to conduct experiments

John Locke

Proposed the concept of tabula rasa, stating that all knowledge comes from experiences, a key figure in empiricism

Mary Whiton Calkins

First woman to hold positions in the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association

Charles Darwin

Introduced the theory of evolution and natural selection

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis, developed the id, ego, and superego model of the mind

G. Stanley Hall

Started the first psychology journal and was the first president of the American Psychological Association

William James

Father of American Psychology, advocate of functionalism

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for the hierarchy of needs

Ivan Pavlov

Father of classical conditioning, used a bell as a conditioned stimulus

Jean Piaget

Developed the four cognitive development stages

Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychologist emphasizing acceptance, genuineness, and empathy

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist known for operant conditioning

Edward B. Titchener

Structuralist who worked under Wundt

John B. Watson

Established behaviorism, conducted the "Little Albert" experiment

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of experimental psychology, set up the first psychology laboratory

Structuralism

Aimed to identify structures of consciousness using introspection

Functionalism

Investigated how mental processes enable adaptation and survival

Gestalt

Perspective viewing the mind and behavior as a whole

Biopsychosocial

Approach considering biological, psychological, and socio-cultural influences on behavior

Theory

Explanation of a phenomenon, guiding testable hypotheses

Applied psychologists

Work directly with clients, students, or patients

Basic psychologists

Focus on research to increase knowledge about human behavior

Biological psychology

Studies how brain structures influence behavior

Clinical psychology

Studies, assesses, and treats psychological disorders

Cognitive psychology

Explores perception, thinking, and problem-solving

Counseling psychology

Assists individuals in living better and achieving well-being

Developmental psychology

Studies changes in abilities from birth to old age

Educational psychology

Specializes in teaching and learning issues

Experimental psychology

Conducts research in laboratory settings

Industrial-organizational psychology

Aids organizations in employee selection and training

Personality psychology

Focuses on individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychometric psychology

Compares experimental data to establish psychological connections

Social psychology

Explores how individuals influence and perceive each other

Positive psychology

Studies positive aspects of human experience

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without interference

Case Study

In-depth study of one person or group to reveal universal principles

Survey

Collecting self-reported attitudes or behaviors from a group

Correlation

Measures how two factors vary together and predict each other

Experiment

Investigates relationships between variables through manipulation

Longitudinal Study

Observes variables over an extended period in the same subjects

Cross-sectional Study

Compares variables in groups of different ages at a single point

Operational Definition

Defines a concept by the procedures used to measure it

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm findings with different participants

Meta-Analysis

Analyzing results from multiple studies measuring the same variables

Independent variable (IV)

Manipulated variable in an experiment

Dependent variable (DV)

Measured variable affected by the independent variable

Control Group

Group not exposed to the treatment, used for comparison

Population

All individuals eligible to participate in a study

Random Sample

Sample representing a population where each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Placebo effect

Response based on expectations rather than the actual treatment

Random assignment

Ensures equal chance of participants being in different groups

Representative Sample

Sample reflecting characteristics of the population

Single Blind

Participants unaware of group assignment, researchers know

Double Blind

Both participants and researchers unaware of group assignment

Experimenter Bias

Unconscious bias affecting treatment of experimental groups

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Illusory correlation

 the perception of a relationship where none exists

Spinal Cord

Nerves connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system, housed in the spine.

Peripheral Nervous System

Branch of the nervous system excluding the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements in the peripheral nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates bodily functions like breathing and heart rate.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for action, part of the autonomic nervous system.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Restores the body's energy, part of the autonomic nervous system.

Sensory Neurons

Carry information from senses to the brain.

Motor Neurons

Transmit information from the brain to the body.

Interneurons

Neurons in the brain or spinal cord that relay messages.

Spinal Reflex

Immediate spinal cord level response to stimuli.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons involved in understanding actions and intentions of others.

Neurons

Nerve cells composing the nervous system.

Dendrites

Receive neural messages.

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains the nucleus and sustains the cell.

Axon

Transmits messages from the cell body.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty covering speeding neural impulses.

Terminal Buttons

End of axon containing neurotransmitters.

Synapse

Gap between neurons for message transmission.

Glial Cells

Support and protect neurons.

Schwann Cells

Form myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

Node of Ranvier

Gaps in myelin aiding impulse speed.

Action Potential

Electric charge traveling down the axon.

Threshold

Stimulation level for a neural impulse.

All or None Response

Neuron either fires an impulse or not.

Resting Potential

Neuron's state without an action potential.

Polarized

Resting neuron state with positive outside and negative inside.

Depolarization

Axon firing with positive ions entering.

Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters by sending neuron.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Stimulate the brain.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Calm the brain and create balance.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. Treatments include respiration machine.

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with the sense receptors & works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. It involves examining small details & piecing them together into a larger picture.

Gestalt

An organized whole. Psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

Transduction

Conversion of one form of energy into another, such as transforming stimulus energies into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

Weber’s Law

To perceive as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage.

Feature Detectors

Cells in the visual cortex of the brain that respond selectively to specific features of complex stimuli.

Perceptual Set

A tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others.