Psychology All Terms

Dualism – Socrates and Plato believed the body and mind were separate and that only the mind survived after death; also believed ideas were innate (nature/born with)  

Monism – Aristotle disagreed with his mentors suggesting that the mind could not be separated from the body because mind and body were different aspects of the same thing; believed ideas resulted from experience (nurture)

In the 1600s, Rene Descartes agreed with Socrates’ and Plato’s ideas. He was interested in how the physical body and non-physical mind work together. Trying to figure out the body-mind connection, he dissected animals to view their brains and nerves. The combination of philosophy and physiology is seen as an important step in the birth of psychology. 

At the same time, Francis Bacon used the scientific method to conduct experiments. For this, he’s known as a father of modern science.  

John Locke wrote that people are born with minds that are a “blank slate” (tabula rasa). Everything we know has been learned since then. This is the birth of modern “empiricism" –knowledge comes from experiences. Locke then agreed with Bacon: we must use experiments.

Mary Whiton Calkins - she was elected president of the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association in 1918.  She was the first woman to hold a position in both societies.

Charles Darwin - Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence for natural selection

Dorothea Dix - advocate for the mentally ill  and created the first generation of American mental asylums.

Sigmund Freud - He is the founder of psychoanalysis (the “talking cure”) and developed techniques such as free association and transference.  His theory of the unconscious included the id, ego, and superego model of the mind. 

G. Stanley Hall - He began the first journal dedicated only to psychology called the American Journal of Psychology.  He was the first president of the American Psychological Association. 

William James - Father of American Psychology and was one of the strongest proponents of the school of functionalism in psychology

Abraham Maslow - Humanistic psychologist who created the hierarchy of needs

Ivan Pavlov - Father of classical conditioning by studying the digestive systems of dogs.  He used a bell as his conditioned stimulus

Jean Piaget - He created the four cognitive development stages 

Carl Rogers - Humanistic psychologist who emphasized acceptance, genuineness, and empathy, and unconditional positive regard

B.F. Skinner - Behaviorist who created operant conditioning

Edward B. Titchener - Structuralism who worked under Wundt

John B. Watson - established the psychological school of behaviorism.  He also conducted the “Little Albert” experiment. 

Wilhelm Wundt -  founder of experimental psychology, and set up the first laboratory for experimental psychology in Germany.

Structuralism - Aimed to classify and identify different structures of consciousness. Used self-reported introspection (looking inside) to analyze consciousness into its basic elements

Functionalism - Aimed to investigate how mental processes function and enable the organism to adapt and survive

Gestalt - perspective that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole

Biopsychosocial - The idea is that all three components influence behavior and thinking. The approach encompasses (1) biological, (2) psychological, and (3) socio-cultural influences.

Theory: Aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that supports the theory.

Applied psychologists - work face-to-face with clients, students, or patients

Basic psychologists - focus on completing research, usually working in a lab, to increase knowledge about human thinking and human and animal behavior

Biological - investigate how the structures in one’s brain or nervous system influence behavior

Clinical - studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Cognitive - experimenting with how we perceive, think, and solve problems

Counseling - assists people with problem in living and in achieving greater well being

Developmental - studying our changing abilities from womb to tomb

Educational - have expertise in the problems of teaching and learning

Experimental - usually work in labs and form the largest category of basic psychologists

Industrial-organizational - help organizations and companies select and train employees, boost morale productively design products, and implement systems

Personality - an individual's characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychometric -compare data from experiments to prove there is a psychological connection

Social - exploring how we view and affect one another

Positive - the study of the "good life", or the positive aspects of the human experience that make life worth living. 

Naturalistic Observation - Observing and recording behavior in natural situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation 

Case Study - Studying one person or group in-depth in hope of revealing universal principles

Survey - Obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually through questioning a random sample

Correlation - Measuring the extent to which two factors vary together and how well one factor can predict the other

Experiment - Measuring the extent to which two factors vary together and how well one factor can predict the other

Longitudinal - Involves looking at variables over an extended period of time (weeks, months, years) in the same subjects 

Cross-sectional - Conducted at a single point in time, comparing many variables in groups of different ages

Operational Definition: The definition of a concept in terms of the actual procedures used by the researcher to measure it

Replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Meta-Analysis - process of analyzing the results of many studies that have measured the same variables

Independent variable (IV) - Variable that the experimenter manipulates --- Cause (what you are studying)

Dependent variable (DV) - Variable that researchers measure --- Effect (result of experiment)

Control Group - in an experiment, the group was not exposed to the treatment. Serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Population - all individuals who can potentially participate in the study

Random Sample - a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Placebo effect - a real response to an action or substance based solely on expectations, not actual properties of the action or substance.

Random assignment - ensures all members of the sample have an equal chance of being place into either group

Representative Sample - sample that has the characteristics that are similar to those in the population

Single Blind - The subjects do not know which group they belong to (either experimental or control group), but the researchers know who is in which group.

Double blind - The subjects and the researchers do not know which group they belong to (either experimental or control group).

Experimenter Bias - The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis.

Sampling Bias – a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Illusory Correlation - the perception of a relationship where none exists

Sampling Error -  the extent to which the sample differs from the population

Confounding Variable  - a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

Situation-relevant confounding variable: when the control group and experimental group are tested in different environments, so that the environment, rather than the independent variable, may account for the change in results.

Participant-relevant confounding variable: group assignment leads to significant differences between the control group and the experimental group

Validity is the term for how well a test measures what it has been designed to measure. 

Reliability refers to the ability to consistently find similar results when a test is repeatedly administered in similar conditions.

Correlation coefficient—the score used to MEASURE 

Positive correlation—coefficient closer to +1, the presence of one thing predicts the presence of another

Negative correlation—coefficient closer to -1, the presence of one thing predicts the absence of another

Scatter Plot graphs used to plot the scores and show the correlation

Descriptive Statistics - numerical data to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Measure of Central Tendency

Mean - the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores

Median - the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode - the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

Range - the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation - a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Skewed Distribution - a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Normal Distributions - usually referred to as a “bell-curve” because of the shape of the distribution when graphed.

Skewed - data points pile up at one end of the distribution or the other

Frequency distribution table - show how often (frequent) something occurs.

Bimodal Distribution: Data distribution with two peaks.

Inferential Statistics - methods for determining the likelihood that the result of an experiment is due to the manipulation of the independent variable or variable or is due to chance.

Statistical significance - measure of how likely the result of an experiment is due to the manipulation of the IV or due to chance.

Significance is reported as p-value

American Psychological Association (APA) - set ethical guidelines to protect humans/animals from physical and psychological harm

Informed Consent - participants sign indicating they understand the components and the potential risks of the study and agree to take part.

Participants must be participating by their own free will. No coercion, or force, can be used.

Participants must remain anonymous

Risk - participants cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk

Must debrief the participants by explaining the deception at the conclusion of the study

Stanley Milgram Study helped with the creation of ethical issues in psychological research

All institutions that conduct ongoing research have an Institutional Review Board (IRB) that must meet to review and study to determine if the proposal is ethical or if it poses risks to those involved.

Animal experimentation is when researchers use animals for gathering information that may help us better understand human behavior

Animal Care and Use Committee (ACUC) - Committee that evaluate the proposed studies on animals

The APA’s Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE) advocates for the ethical use of animals in research.

Behavioral genetics focuses on discovering how genes and experiences interact and lead to specific behaviors and mental abilities

Molecular Genetics - The study of chromosomes and gene expression of an organism can give insight into heredity, genetic variation, and mutations

DNA - a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

Genes - segments of DNA that contain instructions to make proteins - building blocks of life

Heritability - a measure of how well differences in people's genes account for differences in their traits

imagine a city full of clones (all identical genes) who grow up with different environments. If they all took an IQ test, any differences between their scores could be explained by the environment, so heritability would be zero. On the other hand, if we imagine a city full of people with different genes but who all had identical environmental experiences then any score differences would be due to genes so heritability would be 1.

Dominant Alleles - show their effect even if the individual only has one copy of the allele

Recessive Alleles - only show their effect if the individual has two copies of the allele

Genome - the entirety of that individual’s hereditary information

Genotype - the collection of genes responsible for the various genetic traits of a given organism (example: bb)

Phenotype - the visible or observable expression of the results of genes, combined with the environmental influence on an organism's appearance or behavior (blue eyes)

Reciprocal determinism - by interacting with the world around us, we have a role in changing the environment in which we live

Phenylketonuria -  causes cognitive disabilities, but only if the affected person’s diet includes foods containing a certain enzyme. If the person with the PKU gene is kept on a strict diet for the first two decades of life, they will have normal intelligence.

Epigenetics - The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

identical twins - twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins - twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

Evolutionary Psychology  - the branch of psychology that studies the mental adaptations of humans to a changing environment

Natural Selection - certain behaviors and genes best for survival (Survival of the Fittest)

Endocrine System - the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, etc

Hormone - A chemical messenger produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs (released in the bloodstream)

Hypothalamus - brain region controlling the pituitary gland

Pituitary Gland - the "master control gland;” controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger growth

Pineal Gland - produces melatonin which affects sleep

Adrenal Glands - produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions (Cortisol, Adrenaline, etc)

Parathyroid gland - help regulate the level of calcium in the blood

Thyroid Gland - affects metabolism

Pancreas  - regulates the level of sugar in the blood

Testis - secretes male sex hormones -- linked with aggressive behavior

Ovary - secretes female sex hormones

Melatonin - chemical associated with sleep

Nervous System - The body's electrochemical communications network.

Central Nervous System - The brain & spinal cord, which distribute & process messages.

Spinal Cord - nerves that form the connections between the brain and the peripheral nervous system and are encased in the spine

Peripheral Nervous System - A branch of the human nervous system that includes all components except the brain and spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System - The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements

Autonomic Nervous System - A part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates bodily processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion

Sympathetic nervous System - branch of the autonomic nervous system that excites body by preparing it for action (increased heartbeat, pupils dilate, lungs increase oxygen, relax bladder, etc) FIGHT OR FLIGHT

Parasympathetic Nervous System - branch of the autonomic nervous system that restore the body's energy sources once they have been depleted (pupils constrict, heart beat slows, constrict airways, stomach contract, etc), REST AND DIGEST

Sensory or afferent neurons - neurons that take information from the senses to the brain

Motor or efferent neurons - neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body

Interneurons - in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord

Spinal Reflex - An immediate response to external stimuli directed at the level of the spinal cord

Mirror Neurons - neurons that play a role in action understanding, imitation learning, and language processing. Enables use to recreate and embody the intentions of others.

Neurons - individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system

Dendrites - receive neural messages

Cell body (Soma) - contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life

Axon - wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body -- passes the messages along

Myelin Sheath -  a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses (lack of it can cause Multiple Sclerosis)

Terminal Buttons (Axon Terminals) - branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters

Synapse - space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron

Glial cells - provide nutrition and protection for the neurons

Schwann Cells- Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.

Node of Ranvier - Tiny gaps within the myelin sheath covering a nerve cell; may help speed impulses

Action Potential - An impulse or brief electric charge that travels down the axon.

Threshold - The level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse.

All or None Response - A neuron either sends an impulse or it does not.

Resting Potential -  When a neuron does not have an action potential

Polarized - The state of a resting neuron; the outside of the membrane is positively charged while the inside of the membrane is negatively charged.

Depolarization - describes an axon that is firing. Positive ions enter the axon, and cause other positive ions to move into the axon in 

Reuptake - The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron.

Excitatory neurotransmitters - send signals that stimulate the brain

Inhibitory neurotransmitters - send signals to calm the brain down and create balance.

Agonists - chemicals that activate the receptors for certain neurotransmitters and make the effects of neurotransmitters stronger

Caffeine: agonist for ACH.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): agonists for serotonin. SSRIs increase the amount of serotonin available to the brain, and are commonly prescribed for depression.

Adderall, methamphetamine, cocaine, and speed: agonists of norepinephrine. When these drugs increase the excitatory effects of norepinephrine, they create feelings of euphoria and extreme alertness.

Benzodiazepines and alcohol: agonists of GABA.

Opiates (morphine, oxycodone, heroin, etc.): agonists of endorphins.

Antagonists - chemicals that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters

LSD: antagonist for serotonin.

Some drugs that are dopamine antagonists are used to treat psychosis, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder.

Reuptake inhibitors - are drugs that  prevent the axon terminals from engaging in the reuptake of neurotransmitters.the form of a neural impulse down the axon.

Refractory Period - A resting pause, where neurons pump positively charged sodium ions back outside of the cell.

Vesicles - small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell

Receptor Site - Locations on neurons receiving incoming messages; neurotransmitters fit into these sites

Presynaptic Neuron - A neuron that is about to receive a neurotransmitter from the neuron across the synaptic gap.

Postsynaptic neuron -  is the membrane that receives a signal (binds neurotransmitter)

Neurotransmitters - Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons that generate the next neural impulse.

Endorphins - Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked with pain control & pleasure.

Brainstem - the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; this part is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla -controls heartbeat, blood circulation, breathing, muscle maintenance, regulation of reflexes like sneezing/coughing.

Reticular Formation -  plays an important role in controlling arousal (waking)

Pons - plays a role with sleep and dreaming

Cerebellum - the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

Thalamus - the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Limbic System - neural system (includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Hippocampus - vital to our memory system

Amygdala - The amygdala is the center of emotion and is  responsible for fear and aggressive responses

Hypothalamus - The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system (flight or fight), temperature, hunger, and sex.

Cerebrum -  is the largest part of the brain. It is made up of two cerebral hemispheres (the left and the right hemispheres) that are separated by a large groove called the medial longitudinal fissure

Hemisphere - the brain has two hemispheres, the left and the right. The left controls the right side of the body and the right controls the left side of the body. 

Left Hemisphere - specializes in language, speech, handwriting, calculation, sense of time and rhythm

Right Hemisphere -  specializes in processing involving perception, visualization, recognition of faces & emotions

Corpus Callosum - the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Cerebral Cortex - the outer layer of tissue of the hemispheres, and smaller subcortical structure

Frontal Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

The prefrontal cortex is located at the very front of the frontal lobe, and it controls executive functions or a set of abilities that are needed to control cognitive behaviors. These behaviors include attention, inhibition, working memory, problem-solving and planning.

Parietal Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields, contains the visual cortex

Temporal Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas and helps with hearing and meaningful speech, contains the primary auditory cortex

Motor Cortex - an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex - area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Auditory Cortex -is the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates. 

Visual Cortex -is the primary cortical region of the brain that receives, integrates, and processes visual information relayed from the retinas

Association Areas –  areas in the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental function.  

Basal ganglia - is a group of nuclei that function as a unit. It plays a role in the goal-directed control of voluntary movements (like picking up a piece of fruit with your hand) and routine behaviors.

Paul Broca discovered the Broca’s Area - is located in the left hemisphere in the frontal lobe. This area is responsible for speech production and language comprehension. Damage to this area can result in Broca’s aphasia.

Carl Wernicke discovered the Wernicke’s area - is located in the back of the temporal lobe near the occipital lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere and is involved in understanding written and spoken language. Damage to this area is called Wernicke’s Aphasia.

Brain Lesion - Lesions are tissue that is destroyed (disease, Traumatic Brain Injuries, drug abuse, etc). 

• We can analyze brain lesions and determine what was destroyed and the resulting changes in behavior

EEG - an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT Scan - a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure (CAT scan)

PET Scan - a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI Scan - a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue. Show brain anatomy

fMRI - a technique for revealing blood flow, and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. These scans show brain function as well as its structure

Split Brain - a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Neuroplasticity - reorganization of neural pathways as a result of experience

Consciousness - our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Nonconscious - includes all the various biological processes that are taking place internally and constantly without you noticing

Preconscious - Includes stored information about yourself or your environment that you are not currently aware or thinking of but can easily call to mind when asked

Subconscious - Includes information you have been exposed to but cannot recall

Psychoactive drugs - chemical substances that alter perceptions, mood, or behavior

Depressants - lower neural activity and slow body functioning

Alcohol - slows neural processing and thinking and impairs physical activity

Opiates - drugs that reduce neurotransmission and temporarily lessen pain and anxiety

Stimulants - drugs that speed up the body’s functions 

Hallucinogens (psychedelics) - drugs that distort perceptions of reality

Tolerance - after long-term use the brain then produces less of that specific neurotransmitter - this creates a need for increasing amounts of the drug to experience the same effect

Withdrawal - set of symptoms associated with discontinuing a drug - reverses neuroadaptation

Addiction - craving for a chemical substance despite its adverse effects

Substance Abuse Disorder: continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Circadian Rhythm - the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms

suprachiasmatic nucleus - each of a pair of small nuclei in the hypothalamus of the brain, above the optic chiasma, thought to be concerned with the regulation of physiological circadian rhythms.

• signals the pineal gland to secrete melatonin - the sleep hormone - into the bloodstream

Beta - awake, alert, anxious - quick, rapid

Alpha - relaxed, ready for sleep   (may see hallucinations just before falling asleep)

Theta - stages 1 and 2 of NREM sleep

Delta - deep sleep; stage 3 of NREM -- At some point we shift from being awake to sleep, but we do not perceive that moment

Sleep Pattern - Roughly 90-minute segments and you have about 4-6 cycles per night

NREM 1- ½ awake / ½ asleep

NREM 2 - light sleep - associated with sleep talking 

Sleep Spindles - K-complexes - large, high-voltage waves that often appear in response to such outside stimuli as sounds

NREM 3 - Deep Sleep

REM Sleep - rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur

Sleep Deprivation - occurs when an individual fails to get enough sleep. Can cause memory loss, weak immune system, weight gain, reduced energy, etc

Dreams include all images, events, sounds, and other sensations experienced during sleep

Manifest content - what we recall from the “storyline” of our dreams

Latent content - underlying meaning of the dream

Wishful Fulfillment Theory - Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts.

Information Processing Theory - Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day.

Problem Solving Theory - Dreamers sort through and accept emotions associated with yesterday's misfortunes. 

Activation Synthesis Theory - During the night our brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity.

Insomnia - Inability to fall asleep or stay asleep. Treatment include reduction of caffeine, set sleep schedule, etc

Narcolepsy - A disease marked by sudden & irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. Treatments include medication, changing sleep patterns, and introduction of naps during the day

Sleep Apnea - a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. Treatments include respiration machine

Night Terrors - a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

Sensation - the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Perception - the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Bottom-Up Processing - Analysis that begins with the sense receptors & works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. You begin by examining small details & piece them together into a larger picture.

Top-Down Processing-Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes. As when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience & expectations.

Depth Perception - the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are

Visual Cliff - a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Gestalt - an organized whole. These psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Proximity: Objects close together will be viewed together visually.

Closure: The brain is good at filling in gaps to create a whole.

Similarity: Two items that share attributes will be visually grouped together.

Continuity: A line will always appear to continue traveling in the same way.

Figure & Ground: people instinctively perceive objects as either being in the foreground or the background

Absolute Threshold -  the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. Example: If you can hear a firetruck before your brother, your absolute threshold is lower for sound than your brothers

Difference Threshold - the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience this as a just noticeable difference.Example: being able to hear when the volume of a sound gets louder

Signal Detection Theory - a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes that there is no absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

Sensory Adaptation - diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. Example: you don’t notice the feeling of your underwear over time

Transduction - conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

Ernst Weber - founder of psychophysics - study of the relationship between stimuli and our responses to them

Gustav Fechner - creator of Weber’s Law

Weber’s Law - To perceive as different, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage.

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel - received a Nobel Prize for their work on Feature Detectors. 

Feature Detectors - Cells in the visual cortex of the brain that respond selectively to specific features of complex stimuli. Detects: Edges, Angles, Length, & Movement

Parallel Processing - Processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously (motion, depth, color, and form)

Context Effects - States that the context (environmental factors) that surrounds an event effects how an event is perceived and remembered. Is this a B or is this a 13? All depends on the context --- if you are perceiving it as a letter or a number

Perceptual set - is a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others.  

Perceptual set works in two ways:(1) The perceiver has certain expectations and focuses attention on particular aspects of the sensory data: This he calls a Selector'.(2) The perceiver knows how to classify, understand and name selected data and what inferences to draw from it. This she calls an 'Interpreter'.

Schemas - Mental filters or maps that organize our information about the world are called - they can impact our perceptual sets

Assimilate - interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schema. Example: see tiger for the first time and call it a cat

Accommodate - adapting one’s current understanding to incorporate new information Example: see differences between tiger and cat and know difference

Selective Attention - the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

The Cocktail Party Effect  - Phenomenon of being able to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli

Sensory Habituation - our perception of sensations is particularly due to how focused we are on them

Inattentional Blindness: Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness: Failing to notice change in the environment around us

Choice Blindness: Failing to notice a change in a previously selected item

Cornea: Clear, curved bulge in front of eyeball.  It protects and COVERS the eye.  (COVERS get it  Cornea)

Iris: Muscle that expands and contracts to change the size of the opening (pupil) for light.

Lens: Transparent structure behind pupil in eye that changes shape to focus images on retina.

Retina: Contains sensory receptors that process visual information and sends it to the brain. (Transduction occurs here)

Fovea: Located in the retina, contains a concentration of cones that provides the clearest vision of all.

Optic Nerve: Carries the impulses from the retina to the brain to interpret them as images.

Accommodation -  process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Rods - detect black, white & gray, peripheral retina, twilight or low light

Cones - detect fine detail & color vision, near center of retina (fovea), daylight or well-lit conditions 

Blindspot - the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

Photoreceptors: Convert light energy to electrochemical neural impulses that are conducted to our brain

Bipolar Cells - transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells

Ganglion Cells - are neurons that relay information from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory - the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

Opponent-Process Theory - the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Hue - the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

Color blindness -l ack functioning red-or green-sensitive cones or sometimes both, missing cones that response to a specific color

Myopia - nearsightedness (good near vision)

Presbyopia - farsightedness (good distance vision)

Astigmatism - cornea is irregularly shaped (blurry vision)

Glaucoma - damage to the optic nerve and destroyed vision

Synesthesia -  a condition in which one sense (for example, hearing) is simultaneously perceived as if by one or more additional senses such as sight. Another form joins objects such as letters, shapes, numbers or people's names with a sensory perception such as smell, color or flavor.

Perceptual constancy - our ability and need to perceive objects as unchanging even as changes may occur in distance, point of view, and illumination

Color Constancy - Perception that the color of an object remains the same even if lighting conditions change

Size Constancy - Tendency for the brain to perceive objects as the same apparent size regardless of their distance from us

Shape Constancy- Our viewing angle changes or an object rotates and we still perceive the object as staying the same shape

Lightness Constancy - Occurs when our perception of the whiteness, blackness, or grayness of objects remains constant no matter how much the illumination has changed

Binocular Cues - depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Retinal Disparity - a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object

Convergence: When two eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near objects and outward (away from the nose) to see faraway objects.  More convergence – closer the object

Monocular Cues - depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Relative Size: If two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image to be farther away.

Interposition: Objects that occlude (block) other objects tend to be perceived as closer.

Relative Clarity: Because light from distant objects passes through more light than closer objects, we perceive hazy

Relative Height: We perceive objects that are higher in our field of vision to be farther away than those that are lower.

 objects to be farther away than those objects that appear sharp and clear.

Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in the opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation point, moving slower and in the same direction. 

Linear Perspective: Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge in the distance. The more the lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Light and Shadow: Nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes than more distant objects. Given two identical objects, the dimmer one appears to be farther away.

Texture Gradient: Indistinct (fine) texture signals an increasing distance.  Less detail shows closeness, finer and denser is further away

Audition - the biological process by which our ears process sound waves

Frequency (pitch):  Dimension of frequency determined by wavelength of sound. 

Intensity (loudness): Amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude relates to perceived loudness. 

Middle Ear - the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Cochlea - a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses (Transduction occurs here)

Inner Ear - the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Sensorineural Hearing Loss - hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

Cochlear Implant - a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Conduction Hearing Loss - hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Place Theory - in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

Frequency Theory - in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

Taste sensations are transduced by taste cells located in bunches called taste buds. They are found throughout the entire mouth but are most highly concentrated on the tongue, the major sensory organ of the gustatory system.

Olfaction is the sense of smell. Odors first interact with receptor proteins associated with hairs in the nose. The hairs convey information to the brain's olfactory bulbs, located on the underside of the brain. Certain smells can invoke memory

Sensory Interaction - the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Kinesthesia - the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Vestibular Sense - the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

Touch -  is a mix of pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Variations of these four include tickling, itching, and wetness

Gate-Control Theory - the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

Robert Rescorla - Contingency theory - for learning to take place, a stimulus must provide the organism with a reliable signal (signal relations) that certain events will take place. EX: bell in Pavlov’s experiment --- just a picture of bell would not work

Edward Thorndike - performed experiments on cats. He placed them in a puzzle box, used fish as a reward for escaping, and timed how long the escape process took. Through trial and error, the cats figured out that pressing the level in the box (behavior) led to the
reward of escape/fish (stimulus)

Law of effect - responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation

John Garcia found it was easier to learn associations that make sense for survival like taste aversion.

Edward Toleman - used rats to study latent learning (graph to the far right).. This showed that the Group 3 rats had learned about the organization of the maze, but without the reinforcement of food.

Albert Bandura - influenced both behavioral psychology and social cognitive theory with his social learning theory

Latent Learning: Form of learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs.

Insight Learning - a type of learning  that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships of various parts of a problem rather than through trial and error.

Social Learning Theory - People learn behaviors through observational learning (watching and mimicking others - “monkey see-monkey do”)

Taste Aversion - A biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness

Superstitious Behaviors- behavior being inadvertently reinforced through positive reinforcement (operant conditioning), generally used to explain superstitious behavior. for example, you wear a new pair of shoes in a basketball game. you play amazing and you lead the team to victory. you then attribute your success to your new sneakers and continue wearing them in all other games, thinking you will benefit.

Learned Helplessness - Repeated attempts to control a situation fail, you feel helpless (cannot change a situation, cannot escape punishment – often leads to depression)

Instinctive Drift – when animals revert to their biologically predisposed patterns. 

Ivan Pavlov - experimental support for behaviorism with dogs. Created classical conditioning

Classical Conditioning - type of learning that links a neutral stimulus - one that evokes no special response except to call attention to it - to another stimulus that elicits a natural or involuntary response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally & automatically triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR):  The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS):  An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response.

Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Stimulus discrimination - response to only the specific stimulus that has been conditioned

Stimulus generalization - response to another stimulus

Extinction - process that leads to the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR to the CS

Spontaneous Recovery - the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

B.F. Skinner - Considered the founder of the modern behavioral perspective. Viewed study of the mind as unworthy - should study observable behaviors. Created operant conditioning

Operant conditioning - type of learning in which voluntary behavior is modified by subsequent consequences. Behavior is strengthened when followed by reinforcement (reward). Behavior is diminished when followed by punishment

Reinforcement means the behavior will continue and Punishment means the behavior will discontinue. Positive means you are adding a stimulus and Negative means you are taking away a stimulus

Positive Reinforcement: Strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response. Example: Getting praise from your teacher for answering a question

Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus. Example: taking tylenol to get rid of a headache.

Positive punishment involves presenting an aversive stimulus after a behavior has occurred. Example: being given a ticket for speeding. 

Negative punishment involves taking away a desirable stimulus after a behavior has occurred. Example: Getting your phone taken away for using it in class.

Shaping - an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Discriminative Stimulus - in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

Operant Chamber - in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Reinforcement Schedule - a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement - reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement - reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed-Ratio Schedule - in operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-Ratio Schedule - in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-Interval Schedule - in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-Interval Schedule - in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Primary Reinforcer - an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (example: water, food, air, etc)

Secondary Reinforcer - Stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers  (money, grades, success, etc)

Problem-focused coping - attempt to take control of situation either by changing our behavior or changing the situation

Emotion-focused coping - belief that we do not control over a situation

Reciprocal inhibition - process of extinguishing an undesired response to stimuli by evoking a desired response in its place

Systematic desensitization - process that first trains individuals with phobias in relaxation techniques and then exposes them to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli while they are relaxed

Aversive Conditioning - a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

token economy -  is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior

Memory -  is learning that has continued over time

Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful Processing - encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Deep processing - involves elaborative rehearsal along with meaningful analysis of the ideas and words being learned

Shallow processing - simple memorization of something without attaching meaning to it

Elaborative rehearsal - linking new information with existing memories and knowledge

Metacognition - an awareness of our thinking processes and an understanding of what we know.

Information-processing model - a three-step process. Encoding - get information in (prepare for storage), Storage - keep information (rehearsal), Retrieval - get information back (recall)

Sensory memory - processing everything we sense (everything)

Iconic memory - fleeting visual images

Echoic memory - auditory signals

Short-term Memory - activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Working Memory - a newer understanding of a short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Long-term Memory - the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform actions in the future.

Retrospective Memory: Remembering events from the past or previously learned information.

Implicit Memory (nondeclarative) - retention independent of conscious recollection; memories located in basal ganglia and cerebellum - Example: muscle memory, riding a bike, Remembering the words to a popular song after hearing the first few notes

Explicit Memory (declarative) - memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Episodic memories - The stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall and tell someone

Semantic memories - Impersonal memories that are not drawn from personal experience but rather from everyday, common kinds of knowledge ( Names of colors, states, facts)

Flashbulb memories refer to emotionally intense events that become “burned in” as a vivid-seeming memory.

George Miller - Seven, Plus or Minus Two is considered to be the amount of meaningful information one can hold in STM

Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect.

Noam Chomsky is a contemporary psychologist and linguist known his theory of innate grammar

Wolfgang Kohler - created the idea of insight learning

Elizabeth Loftus - study eyewitness testimony and memory reconstruction

Semantic Encoding - Using past events or items you have already learned to organize your thoughts and learn new material. Making it RELEVANT to you. 

Encoding Failure - Ineffective attention given to material

Storage Decay - Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay

Relearning - a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Recognition - correct identification of previously learned material (example: multiple choice)

Recall - direct retrieval of facts or information (example: FRQ)

State-dependent memory -  is the phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall

Mood-dependent memory - information can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was acquired

Context dependent memory refers to the phenomenon of how much easier it is to retrieve certain memories when the "context," or circumstances around the memory are same for both the original encoding and retrieval.

Priming - triggers a thread of associations that bring us to a concept

Retrieval Failure - Although the information is retained in the memory store it cannot be accessed

The serial position effect -  refers to the tendency, when learning information in a long list, to more likely recall the first items (primacy effect) and the last items (recency effect).  

Mnemonics - memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

chunking - combining grouping bits or related information

Method of loci is a strategy of memory enhancement which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information

Peg word system - is a mnemonic device that is used to memorize lists that need to be in order. An object or image is visualized which holds or 'pegs' the information that needs to be recalled and makes it easier to remember

Spacing Effect - the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Testing Effect - enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

self-reference effect - is a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which they are implicated in the information

Retrograde Amnesia: The inability to remember information previously stored in memory.

Anterograde Amnesia: The inability to form memories from new material. 

Proactive Interference - the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference - the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression - in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Misinformation Effect - incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. Elizabeth Loftus studied this.

Source Amnesia - attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Concept - Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of chair.

Prototype - mental image or best example of a category.

Algorithm - methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem because it explores every possibility

Heuristic - simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently (rule of thumb)

Insight - sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem, such as suddenly seeing a cause and effect relationship

Creativity - Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas (expertise, imagination, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment)

Convergent thinking - narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent thinking -expands the number of possible problem solutions

Confirmation Bias - A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Mental Set - a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Functional Fixedness - Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose

Overconfidence - the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Belief Perseverance - clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing - the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Representative heuristic - when we judge how something represents, or matches, certain prototypes we have

Availability heuristic - likelihood of event based on their availability in memory

Intelligence -  refers to our ability to learn from experience, recognize problems, and use knowledge in order to adapt to new situations and solve problems

Fluid intelligence - recognizing patterns, seeing relationships, using logic to solve novel problems

Crystallized intelligence - one’s accumulated knowledge

Flynn Effect - says that people are either getting smarter or at least better at taking standardized tests

Stereotype threat - when worry about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance on a test or other task by a member of the stereotyped group

Savant Syndrome - condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an amazing specific skill (Computation, drawing)

Mental age - age-level at which you function mentally

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) - take the mental age (provided by the exam) divided by the chronological age (actual age) multiplied by 100

Emotional Intelligence - the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Sir Francis Galton - became interested in individual differences. From his work emerged the concept of measuring intelligence.

Alfred Binet  invented the first practical IQ test. Stanford-Binet Test - First intelligence test in the United States

Lewis Terman - revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

David Wechsler - developed intelligence test

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) -most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance subtests

Performance scale - measured processing speed, Abstract tasks - matching visual patterns, Verbal scale - verbal comprehension

Achievement Test - a test designed to assess what a person has learned

Aptitude Test - a test designed to predict a person's future performance

Reliability - the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Test-retest reliability - having same individual take the same two test at two different times

Split-half reliability - checking for consistency between the scores on two halves of the same test

Validity - the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is is supposed to

Content Validity - the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Construct Validity - whether a test is really evaluating an abstract psychological or theoretical idea

Criterion or Predictive Validity - how well test results relate to another measure of what you are evaluating

Standardization - defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Normal Curve - the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Gifted - score two or more standard deviations above the mean

Down syndrome - disorder characterized by an extra chromosome and low IQ

Semantics - set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

Babbling Stage - beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

One-Word Stage - the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Two-Word Stage - beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

Telegraphic Speech - early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs

Skinner’s Belief in Language Acquisition - language is learned: association, imitation, reinforcement

Chomsky  Belief in Language Acquisition - belief in universal grammar: a theory that the ability to learn grammar is built into the human brain from birth regardless of language

Linguistic determinism - language one uses determines the way one thinks and one’s view of the world

Linguistic relativity (Whorf’s) - language and thought have influence on each other - the language one speaks influence how one thinks, and vice versa - but language doesn’t determine thought

Cultural bias in testing - extent to which test offends/ penalizes some students on basis of ethnicity, gender. or socio-economic status

Conception - a single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell - the beginning of new life

Prenatal period: the period of pregnancy that begins with conception and ends 9 months later with birth.

zygote - implants itself in the uterine wall, where growth occurs through rapid cell division. Zygotic period (germinal period) - about 2 weeks

embryonic stage - organ development beings as cells continue to divide, replicate, and create new growth (2 weeks - 2 months) After a month the heart begins to beat and the lungs, eyes, palate, and CNS develop

fetal stage - the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.  Fetal continues to grow and gain weight during the last two months…at the end of a normal 38 week (9 ½ month) pregnancy, fetus typically weighs around 7 lbs and is about 20 inches in length

Teratogens - agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm (drugs, AIDS, STDS, rubella, etc)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) - physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

Phenylketonuria (PKU) – inability to breakdown protein

Tay-Sachs disease- body is unable to break down fat, which causes these substances to build up in and destroy brain and nerve cells, until the nervous system shuts down

Down Syndrome - occurs when a zygote receives an extra chromosome at the moment of conception…causes intellectual disability (usually in the mild to moderate range)

Longitudinal study: studies a person or group of people over an extended period of time.

Cross-sectional study: compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

Rooting reflex – automatic turn of head when cheek is touched

Sucking reflex – suck anything that touches lips

Startle reflex – infant flings arms, fans fingers and arches back in response to sudden noise

Babinski reflex – toes fan out when out edge of sole of foot is stroked

Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. 

Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life experiences and learning on an individual.

Maturation - biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Temperament - a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity (Easy - Good-natured, easy to care for, adaptable, Difficult - Moody and intense, react to new situations and people negatively and strongly. Slow-to-warm-up - Inactive and slow to respond to new things, and when they do react, it is mild)

Stranger Anxiety - the fear of strangers that infants commonly display (8 months)

Attachment - an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Imprinting - the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period

Critical period - an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Secure Attachment - classified by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves knowing that their caregiver will return

Insecurely Attached - Child is unable to be comforted or is violent or distant upon return, may be insecurely attached.

Avoidant Attachment - is formed in babies and children when parents or caregivers are largely emotionally unavailable or unresponsive most of the time. Will have trouble trusting people in the future.

Anxious Attachment - may have a hard time feeling secure in relationships. As young children, they may cling to caregivers or become inconsolable when a caregiver leaves

Ainsworth - Observed what she called the strange-situation behavior to investigate forms of attachment bonds between one-year olds and mothers

Lorenz - Studied goslings (baby geese) to study attachment as important to humans and other species as well. He developed imprinting.

Harlow - studied attachment with monkeys. What attachment based on provided food (breastfeeding) or contact comfort - physical comfort provided by caregiver

Baumrind - Created the parenting styles

Authoritarian - Characterized by high demandingness with low responsiveness. Authoritarian parent is rigid, harsh, & demanding.

Permissive - Characterized by low demandingness with high responsiveness. 

Authoritative  - Characterized by high demandingness with huge responsiveness

Neglecting - Characterized by low demand and low responsiveness

Habituation: a decrease in responsiveness with repeated stimulation.  Ex. a baby no longer being excited by a toy.

Schema: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation: the process of absorbing new information into an existing schema.

Accommodation: the process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

Object permanence: the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.  Develops in the sensorimotor stage.

Egocentrism: the inability to consider another person’s point of view.  Ex. thinking daddy wants a toy truck for his birthday because that is what you would like.  Found in the preoperational stage.

Animistic thinking: believing that inanimate objects have feelings.  Found in the preoperational stage.

Conservation: the understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even thought their form or appearance is rearranged.  Ex. understanding that your sandwich is the same size if it is cut into halves or quarters.

Theory of mind: is the ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc.) to oneself and others and to understand others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own.

Autism Spectrum Disorder: disorders that are typically characterized by social deficits, communication difficulties, stereotyped or repetitive behaviors and interests, and in some cases, cognitive delays.

Jean Piaget - Theorized that what a child is able to do intellectually depends on the development of the brain and on cognition levels

Vgotsky - believed that children learn according to their own schedule

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):  Gap (difference) between what a child can do w/o help & what he can do only w/support (scaffolding).

Puberty: the physical beginnings of sexual maturity.  

• Girls - Early Maturation is particularly difficult , Boys - Late Maturation is hard

• These differences arise from society's belief & expectations about what behaviors are appropriate for males & females.

Primary sex characteristics: the organs needed for reproduction (ovaries in the female, testes in the male, and external genitalia).

Secondary sex characteristics: non-reproductive traits (enlargement of the hips and breasts in females, facial hair and deepening voice in males, the development of pubic and underarm hair in both females and males).

• Children begin to fight with parents more and hang out with friends more. Despite their request for autonomy & independence, most teens have deep love, affection & respect for their parents.

• Frontal lobe is not fully developed until 25 years - explains inability to delay gratification; impulse control

  • Leads to teenage conformity

• Scientists know that low levels of serotonin can lead to mood swings and aggressive behavior

• A higher level of dopamine can cause individuals to seek out more exciting and dangerous experiences

Adolescent egocentrism - belief that their experiences are unique and that their parents or others could not possibly understand what they are going through

Personal fables - stories created by teens that tell about their lives that are idealized and special and that make them feel invincible

Imaginary audience - being the center of attention of a group that listens to their ideas and beliefs

James Marcia - focused on teenage identity

Crisis: a time of upheaval where old values or choices are being reexamined and Commitment: dedication to role or value

Identity Diffusion - no sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment

Identity Foreclosure - willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. NO identity crisis. conform to the expectations of others regarding their future

Identity Moratorium - In crisis, exploring choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices

Identity Achievement/Formation - Completed identity crisis and has committed to identity/value

Menopause: The natural time in a woman's life when her menstrual cycles end.

Fluid intelligence - ability to solve problems, see relationships, and think abstractly - This declines after middle age

Crystallized intelligence - accumulated intelligence over time and ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience - Increases with time

Dementia - thinking, memory, and behavior begin to deteriorate

Alzheimer’s disease - degenerative disease in which memory loss is progressive and plaques accumulate in nervous system tissue

Morality: accepted moral standards: standards of conduct that are generally accepted as right or proper.

Preconventional morality: Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward. 

Conventional morality: By early adolescence, moral judgments are based on compliance w/society’s rules & values.

Postconventional morality:  People develop personal standards of right & wrong, morality defined in terms of abstract principles of justice. 

Carol Gilligan - believed that Kohlberg’s theory fails to account for differences between males & females. She argued that there needed to be a masculine voice “logical and individualistic” and feminine “care perspective”.

Sex - either of the two categories (male or female) into which most organisms are divided

Gender - typed is what you learn or do in order to be masculine of feminine and it can be through your own cognitive processes, but it's often times through the observation of others 

gender roles – expectations about the way men and women behave. Vary across cultures as well as over time

gender identity – sense of being male or female (how you identify yourself)

gender-typed – acquisition of masculine or feminine role (how you acquire your gender identity…what you do or learn in order to be masculine or feminine)

Motivation - a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct: complex, inherited behavior patterns characteristic of a species that is unlearned.

Incentive: Force that pulls a person toward a particular behavior.  

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation that stems from internal factors, benefits associated with the process of pursuing a goal (autonomy, mastery, purpose)

Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation that stems from external factors, benefits associated with achieving a goal or avoiding punishment (compensation, punishment, reward)  

Overjustification Effect – Promising a reward for doing something you like to do results in you seeking the reward as the motivation for performing the task.

Self-Efficacy: Our belief that we can perform behaviors that are necessary to accomplish tasks, and that we are competent

Achievement Motivation: The need for achievement drives accomplishment and performance and thereby motivates our behavior

Instinct Theory “The Evolutionary Perspective”: People are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily/genetically programmed to do so with survival instincts 

Drive Reduction Theory: The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivate an organism to satisfy the need

Incentive Theory: We are pulled into action by—positive or negative— outside incentives

Optimum Arousal Theory: Human motivation aims to increase arousal  - We feel driven to experience stimulation

Arousal is the level of alertness, wakefulness, and activation causes by activity in the central nervous system

Yerkes-Dodson Law: people perform best at a moderate level of arousal.

Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory  refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.

Hunger Motivation: Understanding why we eat, hunger is something that makes us do things (motivator) and is a drive state

Hunger is generally triggered by low glucose levels in the blood, and behaviors resulting from hunger aim to restore homeostasis regarding those glucose levels

Insulin – regulates blood sugar level

Leptin – causes brain to alter metabolism

Orexin – hunger hormone from hypothalamus

Ghrelin – “I’m empty” hormone from stomach

Obestatin – “I’m full” hormone from stomach.

PYY – “I’m not hungry” hormone from intestines.

Set point: the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set.  When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Lateral hypothalamus (LH): the “on” button for eating.  *Remember: If it is lesioned, people will not feel hungry and they will become little (LH).

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): the “off” button for eating.  *Remember: If it is lesioned, people will not feel full and they will become very huge (VMH)

Basal metabolic rate: the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.

Bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Binge-eating disorder: significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.

Body Mass Index (BMI): the percentage of a person’s body fat.

Obesity: a disorder characterized by being excessively overweight, usually considered to have a BMI of over 30%.

Sexual Motivation: The normal human interest in sexual objects and activities

Sexual response cycle: the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson – excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Estrogen: sex hormone secreted in greater amount by females than males and contributing to female sex characteristics.

Testosterone: the most important of the male sex hormones. 

Social Motivation: People need each other and need groups in order to survive and thrive 

Ostracism “Social Exclusion”: Ostracism is being deliberately left out of a group or social setting by exclusion and rejection

Homeostasis: The body’s tendency to maintain an internal steady state of metabolism, to stay in balance

Need: a necessity, especially a physiological.

Primary drive: drives that are innate such as hunger, thirst, and sex.

Secondary drive: drives that are learned through conditioning such as working for money.

Emotion: a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

James-Lange theory: our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

Cannon-Bard theory (Thalamic Theory): an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

Schachter-Singer theory (Schachter-Two Factor): to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

Zajonc; LeDoux - some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal - we automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat

Lazarus - cognitive appraisal (“is it dangerous or not?”) - sometimes without our awareness - define emotion. Example: The sound is “just the wind”.

Paul Ekman  - Universal emotions (all cultures). Identified every muscle in the human face and then every possible combination of facial muscles

Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Facial movement and expressions can influence attitude and emotional experience

Display Rule: A social group or culture's informal norms about how to appropriately express emotions

Stress: the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

Stressor: anything that brings on the reaction to stress.

Distress: bad stress such as losing a job, a loved one, divorce, etc.\

Eustress: good stress such as going on a vacation, the holidays, getting married, etc.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases – alarm, resistance, exhaustion.  *Remember: Selye’s three stages ARE (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) a GAS.

Alarm stage: encounter threatening stimulus, fight or flight activated. If threat avoided, stage ends

Resistance stage: if the threat is not avoided there’s prolonged state of stress. Activation of stress cannot be kept up indefinitely.

Exhaustion stage: energy and strength are used up by maintaining resistance, can become vulnerable to illness, fatigue & injury.

Approach-approach: the least stressful social conflict that involves 2 options, only one of which you can choose. Ex. You are accepted to both Harvard and Dartmouth.  Which do you choose? 

Avoidance-avoidance:  involves 2 negative options, one of which you must choose.  Ex. mow the lawn or wash the dishes.

Approach-avoidance:  involves whether or not to choose an option that has both a positive and negative consequence or consequences.  You are both attracted and repelled by the same goal.  Ex. you like to eat spicy food but it gives you heartburn.  

Multiple approach-avoidance: most complex of the social conflicts that involves several alternative courses of action that have both positive and negative aspects.  Ex. you only have a certain amount of money to spend on prom.  Take a limo: spend most of your budget on the limo and have very little money left for a nice dinner; borrow your parent’s car: it can only fit one other couple and they can’t give it to you when you want it, but you save money; get a party bus: cheaper than a limo, but you don’t know all of the couples going. 

Coronary heart disease: the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in North America.

Acute Stress disorder: diagnosed within the 1^st month after exposure to a traumatic event.  The person experiences depression and/or anxiety.

Type A: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type B: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.

Psychophysiological illness: literally, “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.

Lymphocytes: the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system; B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

B lymphocytes: fight bacterial infections.

T lymphocytes: attack cancer cells and viruses.

Personality can be defined as an individual's unique, relatively consistent pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Psychoanalytic Theories: Sigmund Freud developed theory of personality development, human behavior and experience are determined by forces over which we have very little control and about which we are generally unaware 

Unconscious: According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories

Id: Part of the human personality that is made up of all our inborn biological urges that seeks out immediate gratification

Ego: The largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality

Superego: The part of personality that, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

Psychosexual Stages: The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Oral (0-1): Obtain pleasure from the mouth via sucking, biting, swallowing.

Anal (1-3): Pleasure obtained by learning to control bodily wastes.

Phallic Stage – Pleasure zone in our genitals and we are focusing on coping with incestuous feelings

Latency Stage (5-12) Suppress sexual interest - play mostly with same sex peers

Genital Stage (adolescent & Up) Adult sexuality. Feeling more comfortable with the mature understanding of what sex means and what is about. Comfort and maturity in expressing sexual feelings towards others.

Oedipus complex – boys have feelings of love towards mothers and feel hostile their fathers

Electra Complex – Girls develop penis envy and love towards fathers, but feel hostile towards mothers

Identification: The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos

Fixation: According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

Psychoanalysis: Freud’s techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Free Association: In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Repression – banishing anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Example: Witness a murder and when the police ask you what happened, you forget

Regression – an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated. Example: Anxious on a first day of school, a child may result to a “thumb sucking” phase to help him/her get through

Reaction Formation – the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses to their opposite. People may express feelings that are opposite of their unconscious feelings. Example: “I hate him” may really mean, “I love him”

Projection – People disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others. Example: “He doesn’t trust me,” may mean “I don’t trust him.”

Rationalization – offers self-justification explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions. Example: Students who don’t study may think, “All work and no play makes me a boring person” or someone who is an alcoholic say, “I only drink in social settings.”

Displacement – Shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person; redirecting anger toward a safer outlet. Example: Bullying

Denial – People refuse to believe or even perceive painful realities. Example: See your boyfriend cheating, but still don’t believe it

Collective unconscious. This is our supposedly common collection of images that we have gained together as human beings from our ancestral & evolutionary past 

Archetypes: Major structural components of the collective unconscious, universal pattern or predispositions that structure how all humans consciously and unconsciously adapt to their world

Anima: The hidden feminine side of man, based on men’s collective experiences with women throughout time 

Animus: The hidden masculine side of woman

inferiority complex - consists of feelings of not measuring up to standards, a doubt and uncertainty about oneself, and a lack of self-esteem

Operant Conditioning Theory: B.F. Skinner maintained that behavior is personality. The environment shapes who we come and who we become is determined by the contingencies of reinforcement we have experienced

Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura): Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context

Reciprocal Determinism: The characteristics of the person, the person’s behavior, and the environment all affect one another in a two-way causal relationships

Locus of Control: The degree to which we expect that a reinforcement or outcome of our behavior is contingent on our own behavior or personal characteristics vs. fate, unpredictable, other people

Internal locus of control: Think they control and are responsible for what happens to them 

External locus of control: Believe what happens is due to fate, luck, or others

Humanistic Theorists: emphasized human potential, focused on the ways “healthy” people strive for self determination and self-realization

Abraham Maslow said people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Maslow said we fulfill the most basic needs first, each layer of needs is vital to development of personality 

Self-Actualization - motivation to fulfill potential and to become a fully functioning person

Carl Rogers - Self, an organized, consistent set of beliefs and perceptions about ourselves, which develops in response to our life experiences

Ideal Self vs. Real Self: The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are 

Incongruence, the difference between our real self, and ideal self

Unconditional Positive Regard: We are all born with a need for acceptance and love from others independent of how we behave, and positive self-regard from ourselves

Individualists – more emphasis on independent self. Self defined by personal values, personal goals, and personal attitudes

Collectivists – more emphasis on collective self. Self defined by connections with family and friends with the goals of the group having higher priority than individual goals

Trait - a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Gordon Allport: Conducted research that focused on conscious motivation and personal traits. Proposed three levels of traits...

Cardinal Traits, Defining characteristic, dominates/shapes all of our behavior

Central Traits, General characteristic, between 5-10 which shape much of our behavior

Secondary traits, Characteristic apparent in only certain situations

Raymond Cattell’s 16 Traits: Through the use of surveys and records, found out how traits are organized and how they are linked

Source Traits: The more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality 

Surface Traits: Aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person 

Hans Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions: He simplified a long list of traits into his three dimensions

Extraversion: Measures our sociability, tendency to pay attention to external environment

Neuroticism: Measures our level of emotional instability

The Big Five Personality Factors: Model of personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions (OCEAN)

Self-Report Methods: Most common personality assessment techniques, involve a person answering a series of questions, such as a personality questionnaire, or supplying information about himself or herself  

Personality Inventory - a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) - the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Carl Jung’s theory on personality, one of the most popular personality inventories used with nonclinical populations, measures individuals across four bipolar dimensions

Projective Test:  Personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli and test-takers tell a story about it 

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach Inkblot Test - the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Psychological Disorder - a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior

Dysfunctional - Interfering with the ability to conduct daily activities in a constructive way 

Distressful - The person and others feel pain and discomfort associated with his or her emotions, thoughts, or behaviors

Deviant - goes against the norm of behavior (may be abnormal in one culture, but normal in another)

Dangerous – cause harm to self or others

Ancient Treatments of psychological disorders include trephination, exorcism, being caged like animals, beaten, burned, castrated, mutilated, and transfused with animal’s blood.

Medical Model - the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and cured

Biopsychosocial Approach to Disorders - biological, socio-cultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders.

Biological influences: evolution, genes, brain structure, and chemistry

Psychological influences: stress, trauma, learned helplessness, mood-related perceptions and memory

Socio-cultural influences: roles, expectations, definitions of normality and disorder

Insanity Plea - Legal (not psychiatric) determination of whether someone was aware enough of their own actions to be held responsible for their behavior. Mentally ill patients in certain circumstances can plead legally insane

McNaughton Rule - a rule determining insanity, which asks whether the defendant knew what he or she was doing or whether the defendant knew what he or she was doing was wrong

Forensic Psychology - intersections between psychological practice and research and the judicial system

Confidentiality - professionals will not divulge the information they obtain from a client

Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Groups of disabilities in the functioning of the brain that emerge at birth or during very early childhood & affect the individual’s behavior, memory, concentration and/or ability to learn

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):  is characterized by atypical behaviors, speech, interests, thought patterns, & interpersonal interactions. People with ASD have a difficult time interpreting social cues and may prefer routine over spontaneity. 

Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Disorder marked by the inability to focus attention, or overactive and impulsive behavior, or both

Intellectual disability (ID):  is characterized by below-average intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living. Low IQ score of 70 or below. Have limitations in learning,  solving problems, communicating, and lack many skills needed for everyday life.

Neurocognitive Disorders: Group of disorders in which the primary problem is in cognitive function, impairments in cognitive abilities such as memory, problem solving, and perception

Alzheimer’s Disease: A fatal generative disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions. Symptoms include short-term memory loss, headaches, difficulty walking and driving, and an inability to focus

Delirium: A rapidly developing, acute disturbance in attention, and orientation that makes it very difficult to concentrate and think in a clear and organized manner

Schizophrenia: Psychotic disorder in which personal, social, and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of unusual perceptions, odd thoughts, disturbed emotions, and motor abnormality. Schizophrenia is an example of psychosis, in which a person loses complete contact with reality and experiences false sensations.

Psychosis: a syndrome of neurocognitive symptoms that impairs cognitive capacity leading to deficits of perception, functioning, and social relatedness.

Positive Symptoms: involve behavioral access or peculiarities like hallucinations, delusions, disorganized  thought and nonsensical speech, and bizarre behaviors

Negative Symptoms: involve absence of health behaviors like flat affect, social withdrawal, alogia, cataonia, and avolition

+ Hallucination: Perceiving a sensory stimuli that no one else is able to perceive, vividly real to the person experiencing it, content is usually negative (hearing voices, tasting, seeing, feeling, or smelling things that are not there)

+Delusion: fixed false beliefs that are not amenable to change in light of conflicting evidence.

Delusions of reference: Believing that hidden messages are being sent to you via newspaper, TV, radio, or magazines

Delusion of persecution: When you're convinced that someone is mistreating, conspiring against, or planning to harm you or your loved one.

+Disorganized Speech/Thinking: might quickly jump from one unrelated topic to another, engage in incoherent “word salad,” repeat things another person says back to them, or appear to be speaking with nonexistent entities

-Catatonia: A pattern of extreme psychomotor symptoms which may include catatonic stupor, rigidity, or posturing

-Flat Affect: emotionless state (unchanging facial expression, decreased spontaneous movements, a lack of expressive gestures, poor eye contact, lack of vocal inflections, and slowed speech)

-Avolition: Apathy and an inability to start or complete a course of action 

-Alogia - involves a disruption in the thought process that leads to a lack of speech and issues with verbal fluency

Brain Abnormalities with Schizophrenia 

Genetic link - if your identical twin has schizophrenia you have a 50% chance of getting it 

Diathesis-Stress Model: People inherit a predisposition or diathesis that increases their risk of schizophrenia; exposure to stress may put one at higher risk of developing schizophrenia

Mood disorders - are characterized by unusual and disruptive changes in mood, manifesting in depression, mania, or both

Major Depressive Disorder- Involves intense depressed mood, reduced interest or pleasure in activities, loss of energy, and problems in making decisions for a minimum of 2 weeks (symptoms include loss of appetite, sleeping problems, low energy and self-esteem, loss of focus, and hopelessness)

Seasonal Affectiveness Disorder (SAD) - A mood disorder characterized by depression that occurs at the same time every year.

Seasonal affective disorder occurs in climates where there is less sunlight at certain times of the year. Symptoms include fatigue, depression, hopelessness, and social withdrawal.

Bipolar Disorder - Mood swings alternating between periods of major depression and mania. Rapid cycling is usually short periods of mania followed almost immediately by deep pression, usually for longer duration

Mania: euphoric, giddy, easily irritated, with: exaggerated optimism, hypersociality and sexuality, delight in everything, impulsivity and overactivity, racing thoughts; the mind won’t settle down, and little desire for sleep

Anxiety Disorders - Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety 

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) - Experience excessive anxiety under most circumstances and worry about practically anything 

Panic Disorder - Experience of terror and physical symptoms (chest pains, choking) in unpredictable situations. Attacks of intense anxiety along with severe chest pain, tightness of muscles, choking, sweating, other acute symptoms during 

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - Characterized by pattern of persistent, unwanted thoughts and behaviors

Obsessions - Persistent thoughts, ideas, images, or impulses that invade consciousness (concern with dirt, germs, and toxins -something bad happening 24/7 -symmetry, order, exactness)

Compulsions - Repetitive and rigid behaviors or thoughts that people must perform to prevent or reduce anxiety (excessive hand-washing and bathing  -repeating rituals -checking doors, locks, and homework multiple times

Phobic Disorder - Occurs when a phobia - an irrational fear of an object or situation - becomes so disruptive that it interferes with normal functioning. Most people have some form of phobia, but it does not interfere with their lives to a large degree. There can be phobias of animals, heights, bugs, storms, enclosed space, or the outdoors.

Social Anxiety Disorder  - intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such. Fear of being visibly nervous in front of others .Extreme anticipatory anxiety about social interactions and performance situations, such as speaking to a group.  Fear of eating in public

Agoraphobia - Afraid to be in public situations from which escape might be difficult or help unavailable if panic-like or embarrassing symptoms were to occur

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - A disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. Victims re-experience the traumatic event in nightmares about the event, or flashbacks in which they relieve the event

Posttraumatic growth - Positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises

Dissociative Disorder-  is defined as a disruption causing inconsistencies in consciousness. A person may have memory loss or a complete change in identity.

Dissociative Identity Disorder - A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.

Dissociative Amnesia -  Loss of memory for a traumatic event or period of time that is too painful for an individual to remember

Dissociative Fugue - Dissociative fugue (formerly called psychogenic fugue) is a psychological state in which a person loses awareness of their identity or other important autobiographical information and also engages in some form of unexpected travel

Somatic Symptom Disorder - A psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause.

Conversion Disorder - A disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found (example: unexplained paralysis and blindness

Illness Anxiety Disorder - A disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease.

Anorexia Nervosa - An eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight.

Body dysmorphia - increasing cognitive misperception of being overweight despite evidence to the contrary 

Bulimia Nervosa - An eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use) or fasting.

Binge-eating disorder - Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa. 

Personality Disorders - Psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. 

Psychotherapy - treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

Biomedical Therapy - prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology

Eclectic Therapy - an approach to psychotherapy, that depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

Psychologist- can’t prescribe meds, supports people through psychotherapy

Psychiatrist- can prescribe meds, identify disorders, generally works inside hospitals 

Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD) - Irrational fear, inability to trust others, often thinks in worst case scenario situations

Schizoid Personality Disorder - Detachment from emotions and relationships, little to no interest in any social interaction

Schizotypal Personality Disorder - Eccentric and/or erratic thought, behavioral, and speech patterns, delusions may be present

Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) - Lack of empathy, patterns of manipulation for selfish benefits, little to no remorse; exhibiting a lack of conscience for doing something wrong

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) - Extreme emotional swings and perceptions of the world, black and white thinking, impulsive behavior

Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD)- Dramatic and impulsive behaviors, obsessive need to be the center of attention, people-pleasing

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) - Grandiose delusions, manipulation, perfectionism, defensive and upset if criticized

Avoidant Personality Disorder (AVPD) - Low self-esteem, avoidance of social interactions, afraid of rejection and criticism

Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD) - Abandonment issues, anxiety when alone, afraid of rejection and criticism

Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) - Obsessions and compulsions regarding perfectionism, unable to notice any problems

Psychodynamic Therapy - views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight

Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self insight

Resistance - in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

Interpretation - in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight

Transference - in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships

Insight Therapies - a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses

Humanistic Therapy -  Aim to boost self-fulfillment by helping people grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance

Person-Centered Therapy - a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. Nondirective therapy, the therapist listens, without judging or interpreting, and seeks to refrain from directing the client toward certain insights

Active Listening - empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies.

Unconditional Positive Regard - a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude

Behavior Therapy - therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

Counterconditioning -behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors

Exposure Therapies - behavioral techniques that treat anxieties by exposing people to the things they fear or avoid

Systematic Desensitization - a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias (see chart to the right)

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy - and anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking

Aversion Conditioning - a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior

Token Economy - an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy - a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy with behavior therapy. Based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion) and how we act (behavior) all interact together

Sociocultural psychology  - contextualizes personal development within societal expectations and norms. The psychology of an individual is heavily shaped by those factors, as well as interactions between other people and cultures

Therapeutic Alliance - a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem

Resilience - the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

Psychopharmacology - the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior

Biomedical Therapy: Based on the premise that the symptoms of many psychological disorders involve biological factors, involves medication and/or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders

Antipsychotic Drugs - drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder (Prolixin)

Tardive Dyskinesia - common side effect of antipsychotic drugs that involves involuntary movement in the lower face

Antianxiety Drugs - drugs used to control anxiety and agitation (Xanax)

Antidepressant Drugs - drugs used to treat depression, anxiety, OCD, and PTSD (Prozac)

Mood-Stabilizing Drugs: Designed to treat the combination of manic episodes and depression characteristic of bipolar disorder because they reduce dramatic mood swings (Lithium)

Stimulants -  Stimulate the central nervous system, stop the absorption of dopamine and norepinephrine and allow the brain to experience more stimulation (Adderall)

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) - cognitive-behavioral therapy in which clients are directly challenged in their irrational beliefs and helped to restructure their thinking into more rational belief statements

Group Therapy - In a small group, usually around 6 to 12, persons with similar problems come together under the direction or facilitation of a trained therapist or counselor to discuss their psychological issues 

Self-Help Groups -  Facilitator organizes meetings, but there is an absence of a trained psychotherapist directing the process of the group 

Couples/Family Therapy -Trained professionals can direct spouses and family members to openly discuss their individual perspectives on the same issue

Attribution Theory - the theory that we explain people's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition "That man is yelling because he's a bad person

Dispositional Attributions -  Internal Characteristics (Personal Traits) such as personality and intelligence

Situational Attributions - Environmental Factors

Fundamental Attribution Error - The tendency for observers, for analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of a person's disposition "Because of the Fundamental Attribution Error I believe that the man is yelling because he is a bad person, not because he's under a lot of stress."

Actor-Observer Bias - Tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes.

Self-Serving Bias - We attribute causes of behavior to external causes if we fail & internal causes if we succeed. (I passed my test because I am smart or I failed my test, because my teacher doesn’t teach me well).

Just-World Phenomenon - the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get "Homeless people are lazy and don't work so they deserve to be poor."

False-consensus effect -  is when you believe that everyone else shares your opinions and attitudes

Confirmation bias - is the tendency to search for or put more value on information that confirms your beliefs, while disregarding opposing information.

Halo effect - believe someone is good, you will interpret all of their actions as good, and fail to notice their bad traits.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy - a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Mirror-Image Perception - mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

Attitude - feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events "The student has a bad attitude towards his teacher so he doesn't do his homework for that class."

Elaboration Likelihood Model of Attitude Change  People are more likely to carefully process persuasive messages when they are motivated and capable of considering all available information

Peripheral Route Persuasion - occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speakers' attractiveness "Ads for makeup often uses peripheral route persuasion to get people to buy the product."

Central Route to Persuasion - occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts "Doctors often use central route persuasion when talking about medical treatments."

Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon - Tendency for people who have first agreed  to a small request to comply later with a larger request  

Door in the face phenomenon -  when someone starts with a large request that the other person would turn down, and then asking a more reasonable request that the person would accept. 

Low-Ball Technique - pitching an attractive offer and then increasing the price with the sole aim of earning profit

Cognitive Dissonance - the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. "Ms. Kong hated Justin Bieber but likes one of his songs so she's had to match her thoughts and likings."

Solomon Asch - the Asch conformity experiments or the Asch paradigm were a series of studies directed by Solomon Asch studying if and how individuals yielded to or defied a majority group and the effect of such influences on beliefs and opinions

Stanley Milgram (1963): Designed one of the more famous experiments in the history of psychology on obedience. Measured the willingness to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscious 

Philip Zimbardo -  is an American psychologist and a professor emeritus at Stanford University. He became known for his 1971 Stanford prison experiment, which was later severely criticised for both ethical and scientific reasons.

Social Influence - the ways people are affected by the real or imagined pressures of others

Chameleon Effect - Unconsciously mimicking others automatically without thought or effort 

Conformity - adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard 

Normative Social Influence - influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval to avoid disapproval. Example: You wear army pants and flip flops to fit in with the popular kids

Informative Social Influence - influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality. Example: you go to a football game for the first time and stand up, because everyone is standing up.

Obedience - Changing one’s behavior at the direct command of an authority figure 

Milgram Experiment - His experiments involved instructing study participants to deliver increasingly high-voltage shocks to an actor in another room, who would scream and eventually go silent as the shocks became stronger

Role - a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave "Teachers and students have two different roles in the classroom."

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment - Demonstrates the powerful role that the situation can play in human behavior. When randomly assigned to behave like prison guards or prisoners, subjects adopted that role to the point where guards became abusive to prisoners and prisoners planned a rebellion against the guards (even though subjects were allowed to opt out at any time). This emphasizes the power of role play

Group Think - the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives "During debates, many people will agree to disagree to avoid conflict."

Social Facilitation - improved performance on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others "Because of social facilitation, I'm even better at doing this activity around others."

Social inhibition—The mere presence of others can impair performance on tasks that one is not particularly good at (e.g., a novice pool player   will perform less well in front of a group).

Social Loafing - the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable "A lot of kids in group projects will take part in social loafing if the group receives one big grade."

Deindividuation - the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity "deindividuation is very common during sporting events."

Diffusion of responsibility -  a phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when other bystanders or witnesses are present.

Group Polarization - the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group "Political rallies tend to strengthen people's views because of group polarization."

Bystander effect -  is the idea that people are less likely to help if others are around, because we assume that someone else will help instead

Reciprocity Norms - The expectation that we should return help and not harm those who have helped us.

Social Norms - rules for accepted and expected behavior 

Social Dilemma -  A situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone will create the worst outcome for everyone

Social Trap - a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Prisoner’s Dilemma -  is a paradox in decision analysis in which two individuals acting in their own self-interests do not produce the optimal outcome. The typical prisoner's dilemma is set up in such a way that both parties choose to protect themselves at the expense of the other participant.

Conflict - is a disagreement of actions, goals, or ideas

Superordinate Goals - shared goals that can only be achieved through cooperation

GRIT - Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions "Bush said he'd kick Saddam's ass so Saddam said he'd make us swim in our blood."

Ingroup- "Us" people with whom we share a common identity "The group that I associate with has blue eyes."

Outgroup - "Them" those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup "The other group has brown eyes."

Ingroup Bias - the tendency to favor our own group "Blue eyed people are better."

Ethnocentrism -  is the prejudicial belief that one’s culture is superior to all other cultures. People tend to justify their culture’s social systems while judging others’ as "bad" or "wrong."

Prejudice - unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotype - a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Segregation - unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members 

Scapegoat Theory - the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame "The Germans used the Jews as the reason 

Implicit bias (also called unconscious bias) -  refers to attitudes and beliefs that occur outside of our conscious awareness and control.

Explicit biases are biases we are aware of on a conscious level (for example, feeling threatened by another group and delivering hate speech as a result), and are an example of system 2 thinking

Other-race Effect - the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races 

Out-group homogeneity effect -  is the perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members

Contact Hypothesis -  Bringing members from different groups together will reduce prejudice (exposure) improve positive attitudes

Altruism - unselfish concern for the welfare of others "Saving someone's life despite having to risk your own."

Prosocial behavior -  refers to any action that benefits other people

The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis -  Psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering

Social Exchange Theory - Our social behavior is an exchange process. The aim is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Social Responsibility - Largely learned, it is a norm that tells us to help others when they need us even though they may not repay us.

Aggression - any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy 

Biological Basis for Aggression: genetics, head injury, and testosterone

Frustration-Aggression Principle - the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression "I didn't win the soccer game so we started yelling at the other team."

Social Script - culturally provided mental files for how we act

Interpersonal Attraction - All of the forces that lead people to like each other, establish relationships, and in some cases, fall in love

Proximity - The closer together people are physically, the more likely they are to form a relationship/friendship

Physical Attractiveness - People tend to like those whom they find physically attractive   

Mere Exposure Effect - the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them 

Similarity - The more similar two people are in attitudes, background, and other traits, the more probable it is that they will like each other

Passionate Love - an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

Companionate Love - the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwine

Equity - a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

Self-disclosure - revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

Matching hypothesis states  - that people have a tendency to choose partners whose level of attractiveness they believe to be equal to their own

Reciprocity of Liking -  People have a very strong tendency to like people who like them 

Sternberg’s Components of Love - proposes that love is composed of three distinct but interrelated components: intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment

Intimacy: The feelings of closeness that one has for another person or the sense of having close emotional ties to another

Passion: The physical aspect of love, the emotional & sexual arousal a person feels towards the other person 

Commitment: The decisions one makes about a relationship, promise to sustain the relationship 

Consummate Love - The most complete and ideal form of love, combining intimacy, passion, and commitment