Unit 0 - AP Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt

"father of psychology", established the first psychology laboratory in Germany's University of Leipzig to study his idea of "atoms of the mind".

G. Stanley Hall

went on to establish the first psychology lab in the United States at Johns Hopkins University - a student of father of psychology

Psychology

a study of mental processes and behaviors

The Scientific Attitude

curiosity + skepticism + humility - prepares us to think harder and smarter

Critical Thinking

thinking style that examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that one would have foreseen it → I knew it all along!

Overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate you knowledge and/or ability

Illusory Correlation

the tendency to believe that variables have a relationship where none exists

Ex: Superstitions, athlete's pregame rituals

Psychological Theories

explanations that apply an integrated set of principles to organize observations and generate hypotheses, which are then tested and replicated to confirm, reject, or modify the conclusions of the research

The Scientific Method

Observation, question/theory, hypothesis, test/experiment, analysis/evaluate, modify for replication by others

Theory

general idea on a phenomenon

Hypothesis

educated prediction/guess, a prediction about the relationship between variables

Null Hypothesis

variables are not connected or there is no significant difference between specified populations (with any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error)

Operational Definitions

exact specifications on how the research is conducted

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy

Replicate

do the research a second time

Descriptive Methods

describe behaviors, often using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations.

Correlational Methods

associate different factors or variables.

Experimental Methods

manipulate variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Case Study Adv.

Provides in-depth information of a limited number of subjects

Illustrates general principles that can be applied to others

Case Study Disadv.

Misleading if individual is atypical or under represented

Can over generalize the results

Naturalistic Observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Naturalistic Observation Adv.

Noninvasive - subjects more likely to display honest behavior in a natural setting

Offer ideas for further research

Naturalistic Observation Disadv.

Can be time-consuming and expensive, Subjects may become aware of the observer and may act differently as a result, Observer may misinterpret the actions of the subjects

Survey

a descriptive technique used to obtain self-reported attitudes and behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning the group.

Survey Adv.

Able to collect a large amount of data in a short period of time, Relatively inexpensive, Flexible - online, in person, etc.

Survey Disadv.

Can be affected by poor survey questions, Participants can provide poor or false information (misinformation effect), Can have a poor response rate

Social Desirability Bias

tendency for people to provide answers that may be dishonest because they are seeking approval and/or want to highlight their character strengths

Self-Report Bias

participants can try to affect the outcome of the research and/or be unrealistic about themselves (try to please the researcher or even try to purposely challenge the researcher's hypothesis)

Sampling Bias

tendency for researchers to target their participants to increase the likelihood of proving their hypothesis, or failure to properly gather participants as a representative sample of the population, leading to skewed results

Wording Effects (a.k.a. framing)

how questions are worded can skew responses

Population

group that research is meant to apply to

Sample

a variety of people from the population used as participants for research

Representative/Random Sample

participants chosen fairly to represent a population; all those in a group being studied have an equal chance of inclusion

Correlate

Naturalistic observations and surveys often show us that one trait or behavior (variable) tends to coincide with another

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things from -1.00 to +1.00

Variables

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Scatter Plot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Positive Correlation

the variables trend in the same direction; ex. the more you study the higher your grade, less absences you have, the less discipline referrals you receive. ↑↑ or ↓↓

Correlation ≠ Causation

Just because variables trend together in a predictable way, it does not indicate a cause and effect relationship.

Negative Correlation

the variables trend in opposite directions. ex. the more absences you have, the lower your grade. ↓↑

Regression Toward The Mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores/events to fall back toward the average.

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or two factors to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process

Experiments Adv.

Able to determine the extent of the cause and effect, Able to generalize results.

Experiments Disadv.

Can be expensive and time consuming, Results can be from outside variables

Independent Variable

factors that are manipulated or controlled by the researcher

Dependent Variable

factors that are measured or observed by the researcher

Experimental Group

participants that receive the manipulated variables

Control Group

participants that do not receive manipulated variables

Random Assignment

participants have equal chance of being in the experiment or control group to help the researcher control or overcome other relevant factors

Single-Blind Study

participants do not know which group they are in, but the researcher does

Double-Blind Study

an experimental procedure in which both the research staff and the participants are ignorant of which group has received the placebo, to prevent bias from either party.

Placebo

inert substance that is in place of independent variable in control group so participants do not know they are in control group

Placebo Effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone (i.e. the participants acts or claims to feel a certain way because they think they have received a drug that would cause that reaction)

Extraneous/Confounding Variables

factors that impact the dependent variable that are not the independent variable

Experimental Bias

researcher only notes aspects of the experiment that support their hypothesis, ignoring anything that could challenge their hypothesis

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it intends to

Hawthorne Effect

the modification of behavior by study participants in response to their knowledge that they are being observed or singled out for special treatment

Barnum Effect

the phenomenon that occurs when individuals believe that personality descriptions apply specifically to them (more so than to other people), despite the fact that the description is actually filled with information that applies to everyone.

Quantitative Research

a method that relies on and supplies numerical data (ex. Survey results, Test scores)

Qualitative Research

a method that relies on in-depth, narrative analysis that cannot be translated into numerical data (ex. Case studies, interview responses).

The American Psychological Association (APA)

established several principles to make sure all those involved in research are protected.

Informed Consent

giving potential participants enough information about the study to enable them to choose whether or not to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deception

APA Ethical Guidelines

Voluntary participation, confidentiality, debriefing, no long term physical/psychological harm, all animal participants must be well cared for, approval from research institution.

Descriptive Statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation.

Histograms

graphical representations of data points organized into user-specified ranges.

Mean

average of scores

Median

in a distribution of scores, the number that falls in the middle numerically

Mode

in a distribution of scores, the number that occurs most frequently

Range

distance from highest to lowest scores.

Standard Deviation

the average distance from the mean for a set score

Percentile Rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

Normal curve/Distribution of Data

presented as a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data where most scores fall in the middle and fewer scores fall in the extremes

Skewed Distribution of Data

presented as an asymmetrical curve, with more scores falling to one end or the other.

Inferential Statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize/infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Meta-Analysis

a statistical procedure that analyzes the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Statistical Significance

the degree to which you are sure that the dependent variable was a result of exposure to the independent variable.

Effect Size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. In other words, the larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by another.

William James

Functionalism & the first psychology textbook

Mary Whiton Calkins

Denied PhD; first female president of the APA

Margaret Floy Washburn

First woman to receive PhD in psychology

John B. Watson

Behaviorist; famous "Little Albert" experiment, demonstrated fear is learned

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist; rejected internal mental processes and focused on observable actions

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis & emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind

Carl Rogers

Humanist; unconditional positive regard & person-centered therapy

Abraham Maslow

Humanist; developed the "hierarchy of needs"

Dorothea Dix

Fought for humane treatment of patients in mental hospitals

Behavioral Psychology

only observable events can be studied scientifically, rewards and punishments shape behavior through conditioning, behavior shaped by learning.

Psychoanalytic Psychology

unconscious motives and experiences in early childhood govern personality and mental disorders, dream interpretations, unscientific and unverifiable.

Humanistic Psychology

Humans are free, rational beings with the potential for personal growth and are fundamentally different than animals. (Choose what's best for growth, self-actualization, free will)

Cognitive Psychology

Human behavior cannot be fully understood without examining how people acquire, store, and process information. Interpretation of others' actions shape behavior.

Biological/Neuroscience Psychology

An organism's functioning can be explained in terms of the bodily structures and biochemical processes that underlie behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

Behavior patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems; natural selection favors behaviors that enhance reproductive success.

Socio-Cultural Psychology

Proposes that children learn behavior through problem-solving interactions with other children and adults. Through these interactions, they learn the values and norms of their society.

Testing Effect

repeatedly go through information for better memory retention & retrieval

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps - survey, question, read, retrieve, review

Basic Research

To expand the general knowledge base of psychology.

Applied Research

To solve a specific psychological problem/issue.