ALL AP PSYCH TERMS

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition when analyzing others' behavior.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated in an experiment.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity in response to constant stimulation.

Cultural Norms

Shared rules and expectations within a group that prescribe acceptable behavior.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Evolutionary Perspective

The study of how behavior and the mind have evolved in response to natural selection.

Natural Selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Eugenics

A set of beliefs and practices that aims to improve the genetic quality of a human population.

Twin Studies

Behavioral studies that compare identical twins raised together or apart with fraternal twins to estimate the heritability of traits.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord, which act as the body's decision-making center.

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway that bypasses the brain, resulting in a rapid, involuntary response to a sensory stimulus.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The principle that a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Depolarization

The process during which the inside of a neuron becomes more positive due to the inflow of positively charged ions.

Refractory Period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

Resting Potential

The electrical potential difference across the membrane of a neuron when it is not actively firing.

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Multiple Sclerosis

A chronic, progressive disease involving damage to the myelin sheaths of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord.

Myasthenia Gravis

A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease that causes weakness in the skeletal muscles.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that increases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that decreases the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, movement, learning, and attention.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.

Endorphins

Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a role in muscle action, learning, and memory.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

A hormone produced by the adrenal glands that increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar, providing a surge of energy.

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that signals satiety to the brain, regulating appetite.

Ghrelin

A hormone produced by the stomach that stimulates appetite.

Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Oxytocin

A hormone and neurotransmitter involved in social bonding, trust, and reproduction.

Agonist Drugs

Drugs that mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter or increase its action.

Antagonist Drugs

Drugs that block the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Caffeine

A mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and other substances.

Cocaine

A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Alcohol

A depressant drug that slows brain activity.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Marijuana

A drug, often classified as a mild hallucinogen, that produces varied effects including relaxation and altered perceptions.

Opioids

Depressant drugs derived from opium that reduce pain and induce euphoria.

Heroin

A highly addictive opioid drug processed from morphine.

Addiction

Compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors despite known harmful consequences.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.

Tolerance

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

Brain Stem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Activating System

A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal and attention.

Brain's Reward Center

A neural pathway in the brain that releases dopamine in response to pleasurable stimuli.

Cerebellum

The 'little brain' at the rear of the brainstem that processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, and enables nonverbal learning and memory.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Hemispheres (2)

The left and right halves of the brain.

Limbic System

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion, especially fear and aggression.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Lobes (Occipital, Temporal, Parietal, Frontal)

The four major divisions of the cerebral cortex.

Occipital Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Parietal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Somatosensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Frontal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

Split Brain Research

Studies on patients with severed corpus callosum, revealing lateralization of brain function.

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

Split Brain Patient

An individual whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed.

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change its structure and function in response to experience or damage.

Brain Scans (EEG, fMRI)

Techniques used to visualize and measure brain activity.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

Lesioning (Brain Surgical Procedure)

Surgically destroying specific areas of the brain to study their function.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Circadian Rhythm (Sleep/Wake Cycle)

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.