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Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established the principle of judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the national bank, ruling that Congress had the power to establish it under the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

The Supreme Court ruled that the federal government had the power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause.

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

The Supreme Court ruled that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, were not citizens and could not sue in federal court.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

The Supreme Court upheld racial segregation under the doctrine of 'separate but equal', stating that segregated facilities did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment as long as they were equal.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, stating that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

The Supreme Court ruled that evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches and seizures cannot be used in court.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

The Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment's right to counsel applies to state criminal trials, meaning that indigent defendants have the right to a lawyer, even if they cannot afford one.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

The Supreme Court ruled that suspects must be informed of their rights to remain silent and to an attorney before being questioned by police.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

The Supreme Court ruled that students do not lose their First Amendment rights to free speech when they enter school, as long as their expression does not disrupt the educational process.

New York Times v. United States (1971)

The Supreme Court ruled that the government could not censor the press unless it could prove an immediate threat to national security.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

The Supreme Court ruled that a woman's right to privacy, as protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, extended to her decision to have an abortion.

United States v. Nixon (1974)

The Supreme Court ruled that executive privilege is not absolute and cannot be used to block evidence in criminal trials.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

The Supreme Court ruled that racial quotas were unconstitutional but upheld the use of affirmative action in college admissions, allowing race to be one factor among many.

New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985)

The Supreme Court ruled that school officials do not need a warrant to search students, as long as they have reasonable suspicion.

Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier (1988)

The Supreme Court ruled that public school officials can censor school-sponsored publications if the censorship is related to legitimate educational concerns.

Texas v. Johnson (1989)

The Supreme Court ruled that flag burning is a form of symbolic speech protected by the First Amendment, even if it offends many people.

Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)

The Supreme Court upheld the core ruling of Roe v. Wade but allowed states to impose certain restrictions as long as they did not place an undue burden on women seeking an abortion.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

The Supreme Court ruled that Congress had overstepped its powers under the Commerce Clause by passing the Gun-Free School Zones Act, as the act did not involve interstate commerce.

Bush v. Gore (2000)

The Supreme Court ruled that the Florida Supreme Court's method for recounting ballots was unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause because it lacked uniform standards.

Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)

The Supreme Court upheld the use of affirmative action in university admissions, ruling that race could be considered as one factor in a holistic review process to achieve diversity.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

The Supreme Court ruled that corporate political spending is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment.

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012)

The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the ACA's individual mandate, ruling that it was within Congress's power to impose taxes under the Taxing and Spending Clause.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

The Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment requires all states to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples and to recognize those marriages performed in other states.

Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (2018)

The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the baker, finding that the Colorado Civil Rights Commission had shown hostility toward his religious beliefs in its handling of the case.

Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022)

The Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade, holding that the Constitution does not confer a right to abortion, thereby returning the regulation of abortion to individual states.

Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard & University of North Carolina (2023)

The Supreme Court ruled that race-conscious admissions policies are unconstitutional, stating they violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

303 Creative LLC v. Elenis (2023)

The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the web designer, holding that the government cannot compel individuals to create expressive content that conflicts with their beliefs under the First Amendment.

Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo (2024)

The Supreme Court ruled to overturn Chevron deference, limiting the power of federal agencies to interpret statutes without clear authorization from Congress.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that the power of the government comes from the people.

Rule of Law

The idea that no one is above the law, including government officials.

Separation of Powers

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power.

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches.

Federalism

The division of power between the federal (national) government and state governments.

Individual Rights

The protection of personal freedoms and liberties against government infringement.

Representative Democracy

A form of democracy in which citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

Electoral Process

The method by which citizens select their representatives in government.

Civic Responsibility

The duties and responsibilities of citizens in a democracy.

Majority Rule and Minority Rights

The majority's decisions should guide the government, but the rights of the minority must be protected.

Freedom of Speech

The right to express opinions without government censorship or restraint.

Legislative Branch

Makes laws.

Executive Branch

Enforces laws.

Judicial Branch

Interprets laws.

Federal Powers

Regulate interstate commerce, conduct foreign policy, and maintain a military.

State Powers

Regulate education, law enforcement, and public health.

Bill of Rights

Guarantees freedoms such as speech, religion, and assembly.

Due Process

Rights to due process and equal protection under the law.

Voting

The primary way that citizens exercise their political power.

Electoral College

Used to elect the President.

Active Participation

Essential for maintaining a healthy democracy.

Tyranny of the Majority

The oppression of the minority by the majority.

First Amendment

Protects freedom of speech.

Freedom of the Press

Media's right to publish without government interference.

Freedom of Religion

Right to practice any religion without government interference.

Establishment Clause

Prohibits government from establishing a national religion.

Free Exercise Clause

Protects individuals' rights to practice their religion.

Right to Petition

Formal request to government to address grievances.

Right to Assemble

Gathering peacefully for protests or demonstrations.

Judicial Independence

Judiciary free from influence by other government branches.

Due Process of Law

Government must respect legal rights owed to individuals.

Fifth Amendment

Protects against self-incrimination and guarantees due process.

Fourteenth Amendment

Ensures equal protection and due process for all citizens.

Equal Protection Under the Law

All individuals treated equally by the government.

Limited Government

Government powers restricted by law to protect rights.

Consent of the Governed

Government authority derives from the people's consent.

The Social Contract

Individuals agree to form governments for protection.

John Locke

Philosopher advocating for natural rights and government accountability.

Republicanism

Government where representatives are elected by the people.

Civic Virtue

Citizens act in the common interest of society.

Political Equality

Equal rights for all citizens in political participation.

The Common Good

Society works for the benefit of all citizens.

Constitution

Framework for federal government established in 1787.

Articles of Confederation

First governing document, replaced by the Constitution.

Preamble

Opening statement outlining Constitution's purpose.

Bicameral Legislature

Two-house legislative system: Senate and House.

Senate

Upper house with 2 Senators per state.

House of Representatives

Lower house based on state population.

Enumerated Powers

Specific powers granted to Congress in Section 8.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows Congress to pass laws for its powers.

Electoral College

System for electing the President.

Commander-in-Chief

President's role as leader of armed forces.

Impeachment

Process to remove President for serious offenses.

Supreme Court

Highest court, interprets Constitution and laws.

Judicial Review

Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

States must recognize each other's public acts.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Prevents state discrimination against citizens of others.

Amendment Process

Requires two-thirds proposal and three-fourths ratification.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law takes precedence over state law.

Ratification

Approval process for the Constitution by states.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments protecting individual liberties.

First Amendment

Guarantees freedoms of speech, religion, and press.

Second Amendment

Protects the right to bear arms.

Fourth Amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.

Fifth Amendment

Rights in criminal cases, including due process.

Eighth Amendment

Prohibits excessive bail and cruel punishment.

13th Amendment (1865)

Abolished slavery in the United States.

14th Amendment (1868)

Guaranteed equal protection under the law and due process to all citizens.

15th Amendment (1870)

Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

16th Amendment (1913)

Established the federal income tax.

17th Amendment (1913)

Allowed for the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people, rather than state legislatures.