neuro 2610 exam two

dystonia

disorder where muscles contract unwillingly - repeated/twisted motions. from a lack of dopamine

cajal neurons theory

neurons are the functional units of the nervous system

dendritic spines

increase dendrite surface area

• end foot

• synapse

• dendritic spine

• dendrite

• nucleus

• nucleolus

• cell body

• axon hilock

• axon

• terminal button

• axon collateral

• nucleus

• soma

• teleodendria

• axon

axon hillock

juncture of axon and soma

axon collateral

branches of axons

telodendria

axon callarerals divided into smaller branches

terminal button

knob at end of telodendria

information flow of a neuron

dendrites collect info, soma integrates info, axon sends info to terminals, terminals pass info to another dendrite

sensory neuron

brings information to CNS

interneurons

associate sensor and motor info in CNS

motor neurons

send signals from the brain to muscles

sensory neuron- bipolar

sensory neuron- somatosensory

interneuron- stellate cell

interneuron- pyramidal cell

interneuron- pukinje cell

motor neuron

types of glial cells

• ependymal cell

• astrocyte

• microglial

• oligodendroglial

• schwann

ependymal cell

glial cell- creates CSF

astrocyte

glial- support, repair, blood brain barrier, info transfer

microglial cell

glial- removes dead tissue

oligodendroglial

glial- mylein in CNS

schwann

glial- myelin in PNS

gliomas

most common brain tumor. arise from glial cells

meningiomas

tumor on the meninges

metastatic 

tumor that happens when cells from one part of the body move to another

5 types of neurons

sensory neurons

motor neurons

interneurons (stellate, pyramidal, purkinje)

structure and function

• dendrite: collects info

• dendritic spine: increases surface area

• nucleus: stores genes/chromosomes

• nuclear membrane: protective

• mitochondria: gathers/stores energy

• endoplasmic reticulum: proteins 

• intracellular fluid: holds organelles

• tubule: keep cell shape

• cell membrane: protects cell

• axon: transmits info to other cells

• microfilaments: make up skeleton

• lysosomes: break down waste

• golgi body: packs proteins

phospholipid bilayer

hydrophilic head-polar

hydrophobic tail-non polar

tay-sachs disease

dysfunction of production of HexA, which breaks down lipids, resulting in cell damage. caused by the recessive allele on chromosome 15. 

huntingtons disease

abnormal HTT is dominant. build up of abnormal protein kills cells of basal ganglia and cortex

down syndrome

extra chromosome, typically two 21 (smallest chromosome

histone modification

a methyl group binds to the tails of histones, blocking or allowing to open

DNA methylation

methyl groups bind to CG base pairs, stopping transcription

mRNA modification

ncRNA binds to mRNA to stop translation

CRISPR/CAS9

for gene modification. a spacer identifies the DNA to be cut and RNA does the cutting

primary, secondary, tertiary, quanternary protein structure

1. amino acids

2. helix or sheet

3. protein

4. complex protein 

protein synthesis steps

1. DNA uncoils exposing a gene

2. gene serves as a template=transcription

3. mRNA leaves nucleus to endoplasmic reticulum

4. ribosomes move along mRNA=translation

wild type allele

most common nucleotide sequence

transgenic techniques

introduction of genes to embryos

transcription/translation

DNA-mRNA-polypetide chain-protein

• transcription- template strand, copies into mRNA

• translation- translates mRNA to an amino acid 

which ions are more concentrated inside the axon? outside?

• A- and K+

• Na+ and Cl-

hyperpolarization vs depolarization

• voltage increases- inhibitory (down)

• voltage decreases- excitatory (up)

action potential

1. resting potential. inside is more negative

2. depolarization. sodium floods in=more positve

3. peak. stop letting in sodium

4. repolarization. potassium channels open, letting potassium out

5. hyperpolarization. potassium channels begin to close, but are slower than sodium channels so too much has left

6. return. transports sodium out and potassium in to restart

absolute vs relative refractory

• action potential cant happen b/c it already is

• action potential cant happen during hyperolarization unless its stronger 

stretch activated vs voltage acitvated

• mechanical force, in dendrite membranes

• change in membrane potential, in initial segment

acetocholine

muscle stimulation

epinephrine vs norepinephrine

• mobilize body during stress

• speeds heart rate

• microtubule, carries substances to axon terminal

• mitochondria, energy

• synaptic vesicle, holds neurotransmitter

• storage granule, holds synaptic vesicles

• postsynaptic receptor, where NT bind

• postsynaptic membrane, contains receptors

• synaptic cleft, space between pre and post

• presynaptic membrane, holds NT

tripartite synapse

presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic membrane and intimate association with astrocytes

anterograde synaptic transmission

5 steps of transmitting info

1. NT is synthesized

2. packed/stored in vesicles in axon terminal

3. moved to presynapse, released into synaptic cleft

4. binds to receptors 

5. degraded/removed 

cholinergic system

motor neurons- acetylcholine

attention/waking

dopaminergic system

dopamine

motor behaviour

noradrenegic system

norepinipherine

emotional tone

setotonergic system

seratonin

waking eeg

OCD, sleep apnea

cholinergic system

memory and attention

alzheimers

peptide hormones

insulin, growth hormone

made by cellular dna

amino acid hormones

melatonin

derived from amino acids 

lipid hormones

thromboxanes

inhibit blood clots, blood flow

steroid hormones

testosterone, cortisol

synthesized from cholesterol

anabloic vs androgenic

• muscle building

• masculinizing

slow vs fast response

• cortisol

• epineperhine