germany 1815-71

flash cards for cambridge history

Holy Roman Empire: German Unification

* central European empire under Austrian Empire
* Germany patched of over 100 states, difference culture, traditions + languages

Congress of Vienna: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* Napoleon defeated at Battle of Leipzig 1813 by Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia who didn’t want further influence of revolutionary ideas
* established Congress of Vienna 1814 - 15 reorganised Europe after Napoleonic Wars, ensured stability
* large number of German states made French invasion impossible, reorganised into 39 in German Confederation under Austrian control

Metternich: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* conservative chancellor of Austria from 1821, played important role in Napoleon’s defeat
* wanted to maintain monarch authority, resistance to liberalism and nationalism in Habsburg Empire
* resorted to censorship and oppression

Metternich System: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* faced forces in Germany influenced by French Revol ideas of liberty and equality + nationalism - German speakers reflecting on German ideas and culture, use of oppression to stop them
* 1819 Carlsbad Decrees controlled press, and universities + set up a central commission at Mainz to investigate/suppress secret revolutionary societies
* widespread censorship of newspapers, pamphlets, literature
* after effects of 1830 revolution in France, encouraged 1832 Six Articles and July Ten Articles; limited diet rights, prohibited unauthorised political organisations
* radical thought driven underground but not eradicated. Prussian King resisted the conservative minister’s demands to suppress craftsmen’s organisation
* 1848 wave of revolutions forced Metternich to flee to Britain and end his system

Influence of France/Napoleonic Wars: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* rise of Napoleon + revolutionary wars (1792-1801)
* largest military states Prussia and Austria unable to defeat French conquest
* armies dominated, abolished Holy Roman Empire 1806, ruled Germany directly + puppet states, unified + modernised to an extent
* Germany subject to modern law + government of revolution
* Prussia forced to modernise after 1806 defeat
* Austria lost control over Germany after 1805 + 1809 defeats

Impact of Metternich System: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* people resented control of system + censorship
* 1821: Austrian troops put down risings in Naples and Piedmont
* 1831: rebellions in Parma, Modena and Papal states

Emergence of a middle class: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* half a century after 1815, German speaking population in Europe grew 60% from 33-52 million = growth in manufacturing, trade, prosperity
* road + canal network, steam power, business activity increased rapidly + easing of Germany’s traditional trade barriers = more wealth
* rapid urban population growth encouraged intensive arable farming, 40% increase in cash crops 1815-50
* professions eg. doctors lawyers expanded 19th century. Growth in culture and education + high numbers in theatre, art, literature. 16,000-100,000 students in higher education Prussia 1820-1850
* smart middle class = more demand for change. freedom and unity

Developments in art and culture: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* literature and poetry in 19th century began to showcase German culture, showed beauty of German language in music by composers e.g Schubert and Schumann + opera and symphonic music
* Weber and Wagner explored Germanic legends and folklore
* Ernst Arnat wrote and ‘A Fatherland’ in support of German state

Ideas of Liberalism + Nationalism: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* growth of middle class = spread of liberal/nationalist ideas, middle class dwellers had education to absorb new thinking = receptive audience for ideas on social + political + economic change
* frustrated at lack of opportunity, state service dominated by nobility, resented control of freedom of speech, limitations of Diets and discussions = liberal ideas. Opposed power of Junkers (Prussian aristocracy)
* expansion of nationalism - promotion of German culture and identity. Before Germans felt regional > national loyalty
* 1832 Festival of Hambach, 100s of workers, students, tradesmen to promote nationalism
* most enthusiastic nationalist support from student’s union, the Burschenschaften hostile to French influence during Napoleonic wars

Zollverein and economic unity: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* 1834 Zollverein, German customs union under Prussian leadership. Ending trade barriers + created free = great prosperity, industry and trade
* growth of railways → unifying factor between German states = emergence of wealthier, politicised, educated middle class
* greater middle class could absorb ideas of nationalism + liberalism and fight for change

Social and economic issues: causes of g revolutions 1848-49

* 1815 population growth = rural to urban movement, more available labour in factories + extended workshops
* change from close → distant working relationship, greater trading opportunities increased desire for profit = terrible working conditions, long hours, child + women exploitation, low wages from EU trade reccession

Situation by 1848: causes of g revolution 1848-49

* rural + urban hardship of 1848 = alcoholism + domestic abuse, unemployment, poor housing, poor health
* political ideas eg socialism + nationalism fed on discontent + middle class grievances = greater interest in constitutional government

Economic developments after 1849; growth of industry and Zollverein: consequences of G revolutions

* Zollverein end of restrictions on trade guilds = growth of free enterprise
* end of feudal obligations/ serfdom = 640,000 Prussian peasants free to farm independently, increase food supply, extend market
* internal trade doubled from 1850-57. Railways, steam engine capacity, pig iron + cotton production increased massively
* shift in textiles from small scale → mass productions substantially increased industry
* bankes lent money to facilitate trade + help enterprises: 50x more money in circulation 1800s than 1840s
* increase in railways in the 1850s from 5,800 → 11,300km
* easier transport, worker movement and greater interchange of products between regions broke down barriers, increased wealth
* Austria was hit with an economic downturn 1850s, the expense of maintaining its empire. Prussia gained economic domination over Germany

Humiliation of Olmütz: consequences of G revolutions

* Austria opposed Erfurt union, pressured Saxony + Hanover to leave + supported conservative opposition in Prussia. German democrats opposed union’s conservative constitution
* Austria reestablished Bund under its leadership
* Conservative Prussians convinced King Frederick William IV to abandon union, Prussia announced demobilisation of forced and acceptance of Bund’s restoration at conference of Olmütz 20th Nov 1850
* impression given that Prussians bowed to Austria pressure

How did Prussia benefit from Zollverein developments? : consequences of G revolutions

* Prussian geographical location = opportunity to dominate German states
* large coal deposits in the Ruhr Valley, Prussia had flourishing iron and steel industry
* Austria hit with economic downturn 1850s, expense of maintaining empire; so Prussia gained economic domination over Germany

The Frankfurt Parliament: consequences of G revolutions

* first freely elected constituent assembly of German. 800 members met at St Paul’s in Frankfurt in May 1848
* failed to achieve a new German state

→ unrepresentative body: middle-class professionals dominated, limited representation of workers, traders, and peasants, and little acceptance of protective tariffs or insurance. Lacked support and little appeal to the German masses

→ Much time spent on legalistic discussion, constitution + bill of rights not produced until Oct. By then, revolution divided, lost impetus

→ divisions: disagreement on the new German state. Catholic South advocated greater Germany with Austria. Protestant North preferred a smaller Germany without. Kleindeutsch solution accepted Oct, reaction underway.

→ Reliance on the Prussian military: no way to enforce appeals/military. When Danish King wanted to incorporate provinces Schleswig T Holstein into Denmark, the German confederation opposed it but used the Prussian army

Initial response by German states: consequences of G revolutions

* after the 1848 overthrow of French monarchs, middle-class liberals demanded political reform. Resistance of states collapsed, did not want to use military, aware of King Louis’ 1793 execution
* Feb 1848, Baden granted a free press, judiciary, bill of rights and greater assembly power to citizen demands. Similar reforms in Württemburg, Nassau
* Ludwig of Bavaria forced to abdicate
* 1848 King Fredrick August II of Saxony + Prussian King Fredrick William accepted the change and made concessions
* March 1848, representatives of 6 states at Heidelberg summoned Vorparlement (pre-parliament) in Frankfurt
* Fredrick William did not want to be a military dictator and accepted the creation of a middle-class Civic Guard

Collapse of Frankfurt Parliament: consequences of G revolutions

* loss of impetus allowed conservative elements to strengthen and end revolutions by force
* Monarchs still had loyalty of armed forces, began to regain control
* October, Prussian reaction: royal troops stormed capital and dissolved the assembly
* bitter fighting in Dresden between armed revolutionaries and Prussian/ Saxony royal troops = ende revolution 1849
* recovery of austria, Habsburg monarchy reasserted control over Germany
* King Frederick William IV refused to accept emperor position of united Germany in March 1849. Prussian military inferior to Austria, bowed to conservative pressure

What was the Erfurt Union?: consequences of G revolutions

* Prussian established federation of German states aiming to link German middle classes to Prussia. Through union Saxony + Hanover

How was Austria able to reassert its power by summer of 1849?: consequences of G revolutions

* strong armies defeated nationalism in Czech lands, Poland, Hungary, Italy, restored Habsburg power
* military support of reactionary Russia. Russian troops helped defeat independence movement of Vilgos August 1849
* divided liberals in Germany - moderates divided from radicals
* forces of rival Prussia not strong enough to contest
* Prussian conservatives didn’t support conflict with Austria, King agreed

Otto von Bismarck: consequences of G revolutions

* conservative Prussian reactory opposed revolutions and concessions to liberals, gave speeches in Parliament against Jewish emancipation and liberalism

→ prior position as ambassador to Russia: 11 years of experience in foreign policy + connections, personally knew architects of French, Russian and German foreign policy

→ 1851, role in Prussian Diet, promoted by King to Prussian representative in Frankfurt Diet for opposing German nationalism/ loyalty to the monarchy

→ Austria assumed power over the German confederation and did not accept Prussia as a second power. Wanted Prussia to be undisputed.
* living in liberal Frankfurt + Paris under the Napoleonic regime, reassured view of liberalism and nationalism, wanted Prussia to become leader of a united Germany

Why was Bismarck appointed as Minister President in September 1862?: Bismarck’s intentions for Prussia and Germany 1862-66

* 1858, Frederick William IV was replaced by William I as King of Prussia. New era and reforming policies including army
* resistance from liberal majority in May 1862, considered army a conservative threat after suppression of revolutions. Votes used to block army expenditure in Landtags
* Bismarck called in as monarchy’s last effort to avoid parliamentary sovereignty over military

Bismarck’s impact on Prussian politics: Bismarck’s intentions for Prussia and Germany 1862-66

* recognised importance of military reforms to unify Germany. Gave ‘Blood and Iron’ speech outlining need for army for Prussian strength, but could not convince liberal parliament
* created Gap theory - if crown and parliament could not agree, crown could collect taxes and proceed with budget without government sanction
* constitution + liberals + parliament ignored, 1863 budget crisis solved army reforms continued
* further entrenched authority by aiding Russia in suppressing 1863 Polish revolt via Alvensleben Convention. Unpopular, but established good relations with Russia
* relations with Albrecht von Roon war minister and Moltke artillery and army coordinator

Denmark: Schleswig - Holstein issue (1864): Bismarck’s intentions for Prussia and Germany 1862-66

* Germany’s nationalists in Denmark disputed Christian of Glucksburg inheriting Danish throne with King’s death and annexation of 2 duchies. When Bund was going to take action, Bismarck intervened since it was in the way of Prussian domination over Germany. Persuaded Austria to go to war against Denmark.
* Bismarck understood military defeat of Austria key to Prussian expansion over Germany. After victory over Denmark, Schleswig duchy given to Prussia, Holstein administered by Austria. Bismarck intentionally encouraged agitation in + demanded military control of Holstein. Forced Austria go to war.

War with Austria (1866): Bismarck’s intentions for Prussia and Germany 1862-66

* Bismarck sought foreign allies to isolate Austria, agreement with Napoleon III of France, and Italy
* better officers, equipment access to railways after 1849 onwards Zollverein developments
* defeated Austria quickly at the battle of Sadowa on 22nd July 1866

→ end of Austria’s domination over Germany

Treaty of Prague (Aug 1866): Bismarck’s intentions for Prussia and Germany 1862-66

* deliberately lenient and peaceful defeat. No victory parades or annexations. Did not make treaty humiliating to keep option of restoring diplomatic relations open.
* annexed German territories, 4 million Germans become Prussian subjects. Expanded Prussia became largest dominant state in new North German Confederation

Northern German Confederation (July 1867): Bismarck’s intentions for Prussia and Germany 1862-66

* after Austrian defeat, annexed German territories; Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, Nassau and Frankfurt. 4 millions Germans became Prussian subjects
* established Federal council Bundesrat + Parliament Reichstag
* made alliances with South German States Alsace + Lorraine accountable only to King
* expanded Prussia to become largest dominant state in North German confederation

Luxembourg Crisis (1867): unification of Germany

* French-Prussian relations deteriorated after 7 weeks of the war, with Napoleon under pressure from the French Republic to gain compensation for enduring Prussian expansion on its eastern border. Bismarck understand France’s military power, a threat to unification
* Napoleon attempted to take parts of the Rhineland - Bismarck rejected and turned his attention to Luxembourg Duchy with German inhabitants. Deliberately provoked Luxembourg’s German nationalism to prevent the deal. South German states vulnerable to French proximity turned against Napoleon knowing France wanted Luxembourg, reducing the threat to unification. Luxembourg declared a neutral state at the London Conference in 1867

Hohenzollern Canditure 1870: German Unification 1871

* Bismarck encouraged Prince Leopold Hohenzollern - Sigmaringen, related to Prussian royalty, to ascend the Spanish throne after the abdication of the Spanish Queen
* angered French government; believed there was Prussian plot to encircle France. Placed King William II under pressure to withdraw Leopold from Canditure

Ems Telegram July 1870: German Unification 1871

* King William met French ambassador Benedetti at Ems spa town to discuss candidature issue
* sent Bismarck a telegram describing placid meeting. Bismarck heavily edited telegram to imply arrogant France demanding humiliating pledge from Prussia to never again support Hohenzollern candidate.
* tides of nationalism + opinion sparked in France and Germany, war brewed. War united South German states with North German confederation, ensured loyalty to Prussia. France pushed Napoleon into war

(1870-71) reasons for Prussian victory in Franco-Prussian war: French mistakes: German Unification 1871

* 420,000 German troops to 270,000 French mistakes
* French forces didn’t have full complements of guards + equipment since advanced guard sent prematurely without reinforcements
* poor leadership, lack of organization + knowledge of terrain
* lack of strategy, divisions between government and radical groups
* Napoleon III assumed leadership, little military knowledge = his capture in July 1870

Prussian army, Krupp artillery, Moltke: unification of Germany 1871

* Moltke rearmed infantry with breech-loading needle guns, rapidly developed railways, implemented new command techniques + highly trained officers. key strategist vital to German victories
* reorganised Prussian/ German armies/ mobilisation efficiently
* Krupp artillery - breech loading needle guns

International situation and attitudes of the South German states: unification of Germany 1871

* Austria weakened and discredited by defeats in Italy and by breakdown of Russian relations dut to not fighting the Crimean War with them
* Austria could not compete economically with Prussia and the benefits of the Zollverein. Experienced economic downturn with financial burden of handling Habsburg Empire
* France was isolated under Napoleon III especially after revolutionary wars 1792-1802
* most Southern States Catholic, Prussia and Kleindeutsch Protestant. Difference in beliefs led to virtual war between 2 states until states accepted Prussian influence to turn against mutual enemy France

Government: creation of German Empire 1871

* German Kaisers commanded allegiance of other states’ royal houses, empire of royalty proclaimed in Versailles: people, assemblies, governments not involved
* new federal imperial government Bundesrat run by Bismarck, not elected, only loyal to monarch. Prussia dominated 2/3 of empire
* landers were self governing. Government appointed by Emperor controlling foreign + defence + legislature. Reichstag parliament voted on imperial legislature + budget
* Bismarck kept constitution > absolute monarchy, parliaments in individual states allowed wider voting
* liberals strong force in Germany, 1870s worked with Bismarck to bring economic change eg: free trade. Bismarck did not rely on Reichstag but explained policies to parliament
* Germany remained state government by laws not state whims

Strength of Prussian economy/railways: unification of Germany 1871

* Prussia benefitted massively from Zollverein 1849-66 ending of trade restrictions and growth of free enterprise
* booming trade and wealth, internal trade doubled 1850-57
* railways, steam engines, pig iron production and cotton production increased massively. Railways increased 1850s 1800-11,300km
* banks lent money to enterprises + facilitate trade: 50x more money in circulation 1860s than 1840s

→ easier transport for troops, workers, products, greater intertrade between different reasons

→ Germany/ Prussia’s industrial growth ensured railways were developed enough to ensure sufficient concentration of forces and artillery + transports