unit 5 psych

information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

rehersal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel/dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Multi-store model

Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems

sensory model

model that explains how an individual culture emphasizes a few of the five senses

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

explicit memory (declarative memory)

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state

tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

eidetic memory

the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

cerebellum (memory)

forms and stores implicit memories

((classical conditioning))

amnesia

loss of memory

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

forgetting curve

graphs retention and forgetting over time

decay theory

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time

interference theory

the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

misinofrmation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

anchoring effect

tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Confrimation bias

tendency to focus on info that agrees, while ignore info that disagrees

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

representiveness heuristic

making a probability judgment by comparing an object or event to a prototype of the object or event

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Language Aquisition Device (LAD)

an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

linguistic relativity

view that characteristics of language shape our thought processes

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

achievement test

A measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science, or some other subject.

aptitiude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

contained items arranged in order of increasing difficulty. The items measured vocabulary, memory, common knowledge, and other cognitive abilities.

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

primary mental abilities

seven abilities proposed by Thurstone as crucial to intelligence

Psychometric Psychologists

design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes, interests, and personality

Standford-Binet Test

widely-used IQ test for a long time; not a good test for adults, no mental age change.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

an intelligence test for children between the ages of 6 and 16 inclusive that can be completed without reading or writing. The WISC generates an IQ score

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

norm-referenced tests

Tests where a student's performance is compared with a norm group, or a representative sampling students similar to the student. A person's score on a norm-referenced test describes how the student did in relation to the norm group. Tests results are reported in such formats as standard scores or percentiles.

Standarization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

culture-fair tests

intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased

alternate forms reliability

a procedure for testing the reliability of responses to survey questions in which subjects' answers are compared after the subjects have been asked slightly different versions of the questions or when randomly selected halves of the sample have been administered slightly different versions of the questions