Globalisation & Global Systems

Globalisation

The increased integration of national economies, societies and cultures through the global network of trade, communication, transportation and immigration.

Dimensions of globalisation (& how they are caused)

Characteristics of dimensions of globalisation

(forget second column)

Flows of capital

• Increased due to deregulation of world financial markets

• “Core-periphery model”: global power concentrated in a few HDEs whilst LDEs are exploited/ & suffer from a lack of investment/leakages (as they need to import finished goods as they don’t make their own)/out-migration

• However: outdated due to growth of MICs (BRIC/MINT)

• India receives more remittance payments from their diaspora than any other country

• Somalia: 40% of population require remittances to meet basic needs

• Accounts for 50% of GNI & 80% of all investment

• However: concern that remittances were funding terrorists = US/UK banks withdrawing service

Flows of labour (incl. example)

• Less free flowing than finance due to restrictions on immigration

• Most movement (apart from HICs): developing countries in South Asia, Africa & Latin America & oil-rich states

• Generally migrates over short distances

UN (evaluation)

Advantages:

• Peacekeeping: stabilises communities/protects millions of civilians/counters extremist violence (e.g. Mali 2013-2023)

• Reduces conflict risk

• General Assembly: allows every country to participate

Disadvantages:

• Security Council: veto power allows just 5 countries to block action even when global majority supports it

• Other 10 countries are temporary, even African superpowers (i.e. Nigeria and South Africa) - limits their voice globally

• Lack of strong enforcement power - requires states to cooperate

• Size = slow decision making

World Bank & IMF (evaluation)

Advantages:

• Increases global financial stability

• Reduces poverty

• Supports multilateral projects that private investors might avoid due to risk

Disadvantages:

- Dominated by Western powers via quota system (USA: 16% of total votes & veto power)

- Imposes harsh austerity (reducing public expenditure creating difficult economic conditions)

- Can create long-term dependence

- Projects may cause environmental damage/displacement of communities/social disruption

Scales of governance

Top Down: decisions made by governments/TNCs with little/no regard for local populations

Bottom Up: where local populations are consulted & decisions made in their interests

Global commons (& domains)

Resource domains/areas that lie outside of the political reach of any one nation state (2/3 of Earth’s surface)

1. High seas/deep oceans (incl. Arctic)

2. Atmosphere

3. Antarctica

4. Outer space

5. Cyberspace?

Principle of common heritage

Some localities (areas) belong to all humanity & resources are available for everyone’s use & benefit

Change of global commons over time

Past:

• Difficult to access = resources not scarce

However, present/future:

• Improvements in science/technology & growing demand = greater pressure on resources (& increased scarcity)

Tragedy of commons (incl. how to solve & issues)

Little oversight/enforcement: commons = overexploited

• Solution: international laws/treaties (e.g. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea)

• However: no enforcement of laws/treaties = meaningless

Antarctica: Physical Characteristics (incl. Antarctic Convergence)

• 95% of surface = ice

• Summer: temperatures up to 5*C

• Winter: temperatures can reach -60*C

• Closer to pole: cooler due to increased elevation (creating lower air pressure which expands and cools)

• Antarctic Convergence: separates hydrological regions (Southern & Pacific) & areas of distinct climate/wildlife

Threats to Antarctica

1. Climate change:

• Air temperature: +3*C in last 50 years

• Southern Ocean temperature: +1*C since 1995

Consequently:

• Distribution of penguin colonies changed

• Melting of snow/ice cover = increased colonisation by plants

• Decline in krill

• Glaciers/ice shelves retreated/collapsed = increased flow rate of glaciers behind them = sea level rise

• Ocean acidication: ecosystems so low in carbonate ions > corrosive water to shells/skeletons

2. Fishing & whaling:

• Whale populations dramatically declined due to overkilling & many species became endangered

• International Whaling Commision (1946) > Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary (50 million km²): ended most whaling in 1985

• Krill: depended on by entire food web of Southern Ocean

• However: they are caught for medicine/krill oil (latter commands very high prices)

• Other ways in which this is a threat: destruction of marine habitats by ships/fishing gear & dumping waste

3. Search for mineral resources:

• Banned via Atlantic Treaty & rare/uneconomical

• Mineral deposits: located closer to the coastline as it is shallower there

4. Tourism & scientific research:

• Lindblad Plan: each site visited only 2-3 days

Positives:

• Self-regulating: tourists only go there if no pollution/environmental damage

• Guidelines accepted

• Damage to vegetation due to natural causes

• No litter

• No stress to penguins

• 5% of landing sites showed wear and tear

Negatives:

• Disturbances can last a long time (footprints on mass can remain for decades)

• Summer tourist season coincides with peak wildlife breeding periods

• Overflying = stress to penguins

• Difficult to enforce regulations if not adhered to

Adaptation

Any alteration/adjustment in structure/function of an organism/system which enables it to survive better in changing environmental conditions.

Mitigation

Any actions/strategies/measures/projects undertaken to offset known detrimental impacts of a process.

Resilience (ecological)

Amount of disturbance that an ecosystem can withstand without changing existing structures and processes.

Adaptation vs Mitigation

For Mitigation:

• Increased frequently/intensity of storms

• Krill fishing = dramatic change to entire ecosystem

Following components changing too quickly to adapt:

• Increasing sea temperatures

• Ocean acidification

• Expanding sea ice cover

• Loss of ice in other areas

• Higher UV intensity

For Adaptation:

• Seabirds/ability to plant seeds = survive long periods

• Sealing/whaling/hunting ceased (even when species to the brink of extinction) = some species recovered (or even thrived)

Institutional thickening in Antarctica (& examples)

The growth of the size & complexity of global governance of Antarctica

• 46 countries (80% of world population)

• 29 voting nations

• >300 recommendations

• 3 international agreements