A LEVEL GEOGRAPHY REVISION GUIDE

A LEVEL GEOGRAPHY REVISION GUIDE - Paper 2: Human Geography 2020

Urbanisation and Urban Growth

A wide range of economic, social, technological, political, and demographic processes are associated with it.

Emergence of Megacities

Megacities and world cities have emerged and grown, shaping global and regional economies.

Key characteristics of mega/world cities

Having hegemonic influence, being centers for resources, learning, and trade, having high levels of synergy but polarized populations.

Changing Patterns of Urbanisation

Suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation, and urban resurgence have shaped urban change.

Key traits of recent urban change

Deindustrialisation, decentralisation, and the rise of the service economy are traits of recent urban change.

Urban Landscapes

Urban characteristics are diverse and vary between contrasting settings.

New Urban Land Uses

New urban land uses include: town centre mixed developments, cultural and heritage quarters, fortress landscapes, gentrified inner areas, and edge cities.

Post-modern Western Cities

These cities have a greater emphasis on service and knowledge based industries, are more fragmented, eclectic, and have greater ethnic diversity.

Internal Shifts in Economic and Social Patterns

Spatial patterns of economic inequality, social segregation, and cultural diversity are shifting, influenced by factors that vary from city to city.

Urban Issues

Issues associated with inequality, segregation, and diversity.

Urban Climate

The urban form and processes influences local climate and weather.

Urban Drainage

Urban precipitation, surfaces, and catchment characteristics impact drainage basin storage areas, altering the urban water cycle.

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)

They have arisen due to the issues associated with catchment management in urban areas.

Urban Waste Generation

Sources of waste from industrial, commercial, and personal consumption activities are increasing the volume of waste planners have to manage.

Ecological Footprint

It considers different dimensions of sustainability: natural, physical, social, and economic.

Nature and Features of Sustainable Cities

It is underpinned by the concept of liveability.

Strategies for Developing Sustainable Cities

A range of strategies are needed for developing more sustainable cities including investment in infrastructure and services.

Accessibility

How easy it is to travel to a place or interact with an individual.

Built Environment

The building and infrastructure within an urban area.

Counter Urbanisation

Increase in the proportion of a population living within rural areas, due to migration from urban to rural regions.

Cultural Erosion

The loss of a culture, resulting in a change in ideas or disregard for traditions.

Degeneration

The decline of a region over time, due to insufficient funds, outward migration and declining quality of life for residents.

Deprivation

Individuals’ lack basic services or objects they would expect to have in the 21st Century.

Migration due to an individual’s wealth or status, often investing in the host country through investment visas, property or business.

Elite Migrants

Ethnicity

The cultural background of a group of people, often based on religion or country of origin.

Gentrification

Renovation of older/deteriorating buildings or areas with the aim of attracting high-income individuals or elite businesses to a place.

Green Belt

Strips of greenfield land surrounding major UK cities, protected to try to reduce urban sprawl and preserve natural environments and habitats.

Governance

The management of a place or group of people.

Inequality

Differences in income, well-being and wealth between individuals, communities and society.

Internal Migration

The movement of people within a country.

International Migration

The movement of people from one country to another.

Leisure-led Regeneration

Focus of regeneration involves attracting tourists or improving the social quality of life via sports, activities, attractions, etc.

Media

The publishing of information and production of entertainment.

Rebranding

Creating a new look or reputation for an area.

Rural Decline

Reduction in population in rural areas, leading to reduced services and government spending for that region.

Spiral of Decline

Stages of rural decline that contribute to a positive feedback loop, with more and more outward migration and increasingly declining services.

Social Clustering

Groups of people with similar background frequently living together.

Urban Resurgence

Also known as re-urbanisation, urban resurgence is the movement of people back to an area which was previously in decline.

Urbanisation

The growth in the proportion of a country living in urban areas.

Suburbanisation

The outward growth of urban development where people move to the suburbs.

Suburbs

The outlying areas of the city which are close enough to the central business district so accessible by commuters.

Counter-urbanisation

Large numbers of people move from urban areas into surrounding countryside or rural areas. This is largely a demographic and social process.

Megacities

Metropolitan areas with a total population greater than ten million people.

Urban forms

Physical characteristicsthat make up built areas, including the shape, size, density and configuration of settlements.

Aik Saath

‘as one/ side by side’ in Hindi, Punjabi and Urdu

Urban climate

Climatic conditions within urban areas which differ from neighbouring rural areas.

Sustainable living

Meeting the needs of today without reducing the ability of people in the future to meet their needs.

Accessibility

How easy it is to travel to a place or interact with an individual.

Attachment

A sense of binding to a particular location due to positive and intense experiences.

Capital

Productive assets, goods or financial stakes.

Commuter

An individual who regularly travels a distance between their residence and their employment.

Diversity

Variations within a population, in their characteristics, background and behaviour.

Endogenous factor

Factors based on local characteristics or perspective originating from inside the place.

Ethnic clustering

Residence areas with similar cultures, ethics or religions. This area may be to avoid isolation or to live locally to special services and facilities.

Exogenous factor

Factors based on characteristics or perspective originating from outside the place, commonly referred to as flows.

Experienced places

Locations a person has visited in their lifetime.

Far places

Places that feel distant, physically or emotionally.

Genius loci

Also known as the -spirit- of a place, based on it's history culture and daily atmosphere.

Gentrification

Renovation of older/deteriorating buildings or areas with the aim of attracting high-income individuals or elite businesses to a place.

Idyll

A location with ideal living conditions and good qualities. Often based on a perception.

Insiders

People who feel like they are -part of a place; they feel included within the place and have a strong connection to it.

Locales

Locations of different daily activities.

Media places

Places an individual hasn't visited, but has a reputation based from media representation.

Near places

Places that feel close, physically or emotionally.

Outsiders

People who feel like they are not -part of- a place, they feel isolated and may not have a strong connection to the place.

Places that lack unique character or reputation, due to chain stores replacing local independent shops or a lack of attachment experienced by people visiting the location.

Placelessness

Rebranding

Creating a new look or reputation for an area.

Segregation

The separation of a group from other groups this can be through force or voluntarily. Segregation can often occur due to housing strategies or regeneration projects.

People of different background or identity to an individual.

''The Other''

NIMBYism

The tendency for individuals to oppose or resist projects or development efforts in their local area, often stemming from concerns about potential negative impacts on their property values, quality of life, or the character of the neighborhood.

Globalisation

Involves widening and deepening global connections, interdependence and flows.

The 21st century

Rapid development in ICT and mobile communication, lowering communication costs and contributing to time-space compression.

International political and economic organisations

They have contributed to globalisation through the promotion of free trade policies and foreign direct investment (FDI).

National governments

They promotes free trade blocs and encouraging business start-ups through policies.

Special economic zones, government subsidies and attitudes to FDI

China’s 1978 Open Door Policy

Infrastructure investment

To maintain growth and improve accessibility to regenerate regions.

Important in globalisation both contributing to its spread and taking advantage of economic liberalisation.

TNCs

Locations remain largely switched off’ from globalisation

North Korea, Sahel countries

Regions face social and environmental problems as a result of economic restructuring.

Deindustrialised regions in developed countries.

International migration has increased in global hub cities and regions.

Russian oligarchs to London and mass low-wage economic migration.

Cultural diffusion results as cultural values and features

TNCs, global media corporations, tourism and migration create and spread an increasingly ‘westernised’ global culture which impacts on both the environment and people.

What has led concern about cultural impacts, economic and environmental exploitation?

Opposition to globalisation from some groups.

Economic measures

Income per capita, economic sector balance

Social development

Human Development Index (HDI), Gender Inequality Index (GII)

Environmental quality

Air pollution indices.

Trends in widening income inequality, globally and nationally

Suggests globalisation has created winners and losers for people and physical environments between and within developed, emerging and developing economies.

Globalization

Open borders, deregulation and encouragement of foreign direct investment has created culturally mixed societies and thriving migrant diasporas

Control attempts of Globalization

Attempts have been made to control the spread of globalisation by censorship, limiting immigration and trade protectionism.

The patterns of international migration will continue to change

Because environmental, economic and political events affect both the source areas of many migrants and their destinations

Economic theory suggests that

economic efficiency is maximised when goods (free trade), capital (deregulated financial markets) and labour (open-borders) can move freely across international borders

Migration causes political tensions because of differences in perceptions of the social, economic, cultural and demographic impacts of migration

Labour flows across the Mexico-US border and between EU states.

The emergence of new state forms

Tax-havens

The United Nations

Was the first post-war IGO to be established and has grown in importance.

Role in global governance United Nation

the different geopolitical visons of members of the Security Council and its multiple functions in managing global environmental, socio-economic and political problems.

Some member states that have operated independently of the UN

US, UK, Russia, etc

The IMF, WB and WTO were established by the WWII allied nations and have been important in maintaining the dominance of ‘western’ capitalism, global economic management and trade policy

Free trade

The role global commons

To maintain the rights of all people to sustainable development and the need balance.