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geology
The science devoted to the study of dynamic processes taking place on the Earth's surface and in its interior
core
The Earth's innermost zone; has a solid inner part surrounded by a thick layer of molten rock and semisolid material
mantle
The zone of the Earth made mostly of solid rock that can be soft and pliable at very high temperatures
asthenosphere
The partially melted, plastic layer of the mantle beneath the lithosphere; made of mantle rock that flows very slowly, which allows tectonic plates to move on top of it
convection currents
Circular currents in the mantle caused by the magma being heated by the core of the Earth.
magma
Hot, melted rock material beneath Earth's surface
crust
Earth's rocky solid surface
lithosphere
A rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust.
mineral
A naturally occurring chemical element or inorganic compound that exists as a solid with a regularly repeating internal arrangement of atoms or ions
mineral resource
Elements, chemical compounds, minerals, or rocks concentrated in a form that can be extracted to obtain a usable commodity
rock
A naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals or organic matter
sedimentary rock
A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together
sediments
Bits of weathered rock, minerals, grains, plants, and animals that have been eroded
igneous rock
A type of rock that forms from the cooling of molten rock at or below the surface
metamorphic rock
A type of rock that forms from an existing rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions
rock cycle
A series of processes on the surface and inside Earth that slowly changes rocks from one kind to another
ore
A rock that contains a large enough concentration of a particular mineral (usually a metal) to make it profitable for mining and processing
high-grade ore
Ore that contains a fairly large amount of the desired mineral
low-grade ore
Ore that contains a smaller amount of the desired mineral
reserves
Identified deposits of a particular resource from which the resource can be profitably extracted in the future
depletion time
The time it takes to use up a certain proportion (usually 80%) of the reserves of a mineral at a given rate of use
strategic metal resources
Manganese, cobalt, chromium, and platinum that are essential for the country's economy and military strength
biomining
A kind of mining in which microorganisms are used to extract minerals from low-grade ores
surface mining
The extraction of mineral and energy resources near Earth's surface by first removing the soil, subsoil, and overlying rock strata
overburden
The surface soil that must be moved away to get at coal seams and mineral deposits
spoils
Waste materials from mining
open-pit mining
Removing minerals such as gravel, sand, and metal ores by digging them out of the Earth's surface and leaving an open pit
area strip mining
Type of surface mining used where the terrain is flat; an earthmover strips away the overburden, and a power shovel digs a cut to remove the mineral deposit
strip mining
Form of surface mining in which bulldozers, power shovels, or stripping wheels remove large chunks of the Earth's surface in strips
contour strip mining
Form of mining used on hilly or mountainous terrain; a series of terraces are cut into the side of a hill
mountaintop removal
Type of surface mining that uses explosives, massive shovels, and even larger machinery called draglines to remove the top of a mountain to expose seams of coal underneath a mountain
subsurface mining
Extraction of a metal ore or fuel resource such as coal from a deep underground deposit
acid mine drainage
Pollution caused when sulfuric acid and dangerous dissolved materials such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium wash from coal and metal mines into nearby lakes and streams
tailings or gangue
Rock and other waste materials removed as impurities when waste mineral material is separated from the metal in an ore
materials revolution
The process of silicon and other new materials, particularly ceramics and plastics being used as replacements for metals because they are more cost-effective and efficient
tectonic plates
Sections of the Earth's crust that move due to convection currents
volcano
A vent or fissure in the Earth's surface through which magma and gases are expelled
fault
A crack in the earth's crust resulting from the displacement of one side with respect to the other
earthquake
Shaking and vibration at the surface of the earth resulting from underground movement along a fault plane of from volcanic activity
magnitude
Measure of the energy released during an earthquake
amplitude
The size of seismic waves
seismograph
A device that records ground movements caused by seismic waves as they move through Earth
Richter scale
A scale that rates an earthquake's magnitude based on the size of its seismic waves
tsunami
A giant wave usually caused by an earthquake beneath the ocean floor
convergent boundary
A plate boundary where two plates move toward each other
divergent boundary
A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other
transform boundary
A plate boundary where two plates move past each other in opposite directions
focus
The point beneath Earth's surface where rock breaks under stress and causes an earthquake
epicenter
Point on Earth's surface directly above an earthquake's focus
lava
Magma that reaches Earth's surface
cyanide
Used by the mining industry to separate gold and silver particles from ore for over 120 years
rare earth metals
Group of chemically similar metallic elements comprising the lanthanide series and (usually) scandium and yttrium, crucial ingredient in many of our tech products
trench
Extremely deep areas in the ocean that are created by a subducting plate
subsidy
A government payment that supports a business or market
smelting
Heating ores to release metals
