HDFS 3690 Final Exam

Binary Variable

A variable with only two possible values (e.g., yes/no, 0/1).

Likert Scale

A measurement scale that asks respondents to indicate agreement or disagreement on an ordered scale (e.g., strongly disagree to strongly agree).

Semantic Differential Scale

A scale that measures attitudes using pairs of opposite adjectives (e.g., good-bad, strong-weak).

Guttman Scale

A cumulative scale where agreement with higher-order items implies agreement with lower-order items.

Dummy Variable

A binary variable created from a nominal variable to represent group membership (0 = reference group, 1 = comparison group).

Reference Group (Dummy Variables)

The omitted category in a regression that all other groups are compared against

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

Used to discover underlying dimensions or factors when the structure is unknown.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Used to test whether data fit a predefined factor structure based on theory.

Difference Between EFA and CFA

EFA explores patterns; CFA confirms hypothesized relationships.

Double Barreled Question

A question that asks about more than one issue at the same time.

Double Negative Question

A question that uses two negatives, making interpretation confusing.

Leading Question

A question that pushes respondents toward a particular answer.

Social Desirability Bias

When respondents answer in a way that makes them look good rather than telling the truth.

Fence Sitting

Choosing a neutral option when a respondent truly has an opinion.

Floating

Giving an opinion on a topic the respondent has little knowledge about.

Response Scale

A set of answer options used to clarify meaning and reduce vagueness.

Unipolar Scale

Measures intensity in one direction (e.g., not at all → extremely).

Bipolar Scale

Measures between two opposite concepts (e.g., agree ↔ disagree).

Likert Scale Categories

Unipolar scales usually have 4-5 categories; bipolar scales usually have 5-7 categories.

Filter Question

A screening question that determines whether follow-up questions apply.

Skip Pattern

Instructions that guide respondents past irrelevant questions.

Contingent Question

A follow-up question asked only if a certain response is given.

Questionnaire

A self-administered survey instrument.

Interview Schedule

A survey administered by an interviewer.

Pilot Sample

A small test group used to identify problems in a survey before full deployment.

Focus Group

A guided discussion used to evaluate question wording and survey design.

Interpretive Question

Asks for opinions, meanings, or perceptions.

Factual Question

Asks for objective information; preferred for survey accuracy.

Context Effects

When earlier questions influence responses to later questions.

Sensitive Questions Strategy

Use indirect wording, place later in survey, or ensure confidentiality.

Dependent Variable Placement

Measures of the dependent variable should appear after independent variables.

CAPI (Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing)

A digital interviewing method that produces high-quality survey data.

Forward-and-Back Translation

A translation process ensuring meaning equivalence across languages.

True Experiment Requirements

Manipulation, control group, and random assignment.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study establishes a causal relationship.

External Validity

The degree to which findings can be generalized beyond the study.

Validity Trade-Off

Increasing internal validity often reduces external validity.

Experimental Complexity

Adding factors, repeated measures, or multiple groups to improve realism.

Challenge of Experiments

Ethical limits, artificial settings, and difficulty generalizing results.

Goal of Qualitative Research

To understand meaning, experience, and social processes.

Documenting

Collecting and recording qualitative data.

Concepts

Identifying key ideas or themes in qualitative data.

Relationships

Linking concepts to show patterns or processes.

Authentication

Ensuring credibility and trustworthiness of findings.

Reflexivity

Acknowledging how the researcher influences the research.

Hermeneutic Spiral

An iterative process of interpretation moving between data and theory.

Saturation

The point at which no new insights emerge from data collection.

Open Coding

Breaking data into discrete parts and labeling concepts.

Axial Coding

Linking categories using relationships.

Five Cs of Axial Coding

Conditions, Context, Causes, Consequences, Contingencies.

Selective Coding

Integrating categories around a core concept to build theory.

Bracketing

Setting aside researcher assumptions.

Horizontalization

Treating all statements as equally important initially.

Textural Description

Describing what participants experienced.

Structural Description

Describing how the experience occurred.

Cross-Tabulation

A table showing the relationship between two categorical variables.

Positive Relationship

As one variable increases, the other increases.

Negative Relationship

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number between −1.00 and +1.00 indicating relationship strength and direction.

Scatterplot

A visual display of the relationship between two quantitative variables.

OLS Regression

A method used when the dependent variable is continuous.

p-Value

The probability that an observed effect occurred by chance.

b Coefficient

The unstandardized effect of an independent variable.

Beta (β) Coefficient

The standardized effect used to compare variable importance.

R² (R-Squared)

The proportion of variance explained by the model.

Logistic Regression

Used when the dependent variable is binary.

Odds Ratio

Indicates how the odds change with a one-unit increase in a predictor.

Evaluation Research Goal

To assess program effectiveness and outcomes.

Needs Assessment

Identifying whether a program is necessary.

Program Theory

Examining how a program is supposed to work.

Process Evaluation

Assessing how a program is implemented.

Outcome Evaluation

Measuring whether a program achieved its goals.