Human Anatomy & Physiology I (BIO 211)

Unit A

Cranial

Towards the head end of the body

Caudal

Towards the tail end (lower part) of the body

Superior

Towards the head, or the upper part of a structure; above

Inferior

Away from the head, toward the lower part of a structure; below

Superficial

Towards or at the body surface

Deep

Away from the body surface; more internal

Medial

Toward the midline of the body; closer to the center.

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body; towards the sides of the body

Anterior

Towards the front of the body

Posterior

Towards the back of the body

Dorsal

Towards the back (spine) of the body. Corresponds to posterior in humans

Ventral

Towards the belly (front) of the body. Corresponds to anterior in humans

Prone

Lying face down (front of body facing down)

Supine

Lying face up (front of body facing up)

Coronal (Frontal) Section

A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.

Saggital Section

A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts.

Mid-Saggital Section

A vertical plane that divides the body into equal right and left halves.

Transverse Section

A horizontal plane that divides the body into cranial and caudal sections.

Dorsal Cavity

The space within the body that contains the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.

Dorsal Cavity Location

Located along the posterior of the body.

Cranial Cavity Location

The skull.

Cranial Cavity Contents

The brain, pituitary gland, cerebral blood vessels, roots of cranial nerves.

Cranial Cavity Protective Structure

Cranial (skull) bones.

Spinal / Vertebral Cavity Location

The vertebral column.

Spinal / Vertebral Cavity Contents

The spinal cord, spinal blood vessels, roots of spinal nerves.

Spinal / Vertebral Cavity Protective Structure

Vertebrae.

Thoracic Cavity Location

Superior to the diaphragm.

Thoracic Cavity Contents

Contains the Pleural Cavities, Mediastinum, and Pericadial Cavity.

Pleural Cavity Contents

The lungs.

Mediastinum Contents

Pericadial Cavity, thymus, trachea (windpipe), esophagus.

Pericardial Cavity Contents

The heart.

Thoracic Cavity Protective Structure

Sternum, ribs, and diaphragm.

Abdominopelvic Cavity Location

Inferior to the diaphragm.

Abdominopelvic Cavity Contents

Abdominal Cavity and Pelvic Cavity

Abdominal Cavity Contents

Stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, kidneys.

Pelvic Cavity Contents

Urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum.

Abdominopelvic Cavity Protective Structure

Abdominal wall muscles.

Abdominopelvic Cavity Regions

Right + Left Hypochondriac, Epigastric, Right + Left Lumbar, Umbilical, Right + Left Iliac, Hypogastric.

Levels of Biological Organization

1. Atoms

2. Molecules

3. Biomolecules

4. Organelles

5. Cells

6. Tissues

7. Organs

8. Systems

9. Organism

10. Population

11. Species (community, ecosystem, biome)

Organic Molecules

Carbon-based. Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Inorganic Molecules

Not carbon-based. Includes salts, minerals, and water.

Carbohydrate Composition

C, H, O (1:2:1)

Carbohydrate Building Block

Monosaccharide

Lipid Composition

C, H, O

Lipid Building Blocks

Glycerol, Fatty Acids, Phosphate, Cholesterol

Protein Composition

C, H, O, N

Protein Building Block

Amino Acid

Nucleic Acid Composition

C, H, O, N, P

Nucleic Acid Building Block

Nucleotide (sugar, PO4, nitrogenous base)

Epithelium Tissue Function

Covers and protects body surfaces, lines cavities.

Connective Tissue Function

Supports, binds, and connects other tissues.

Muscle Tissue Function

Produces movement; protection, and heat.

Nerve Tissue Function

Communication and regulation of body activities through the generation and transmission of signals.

Proximal

Closer to the trunk of the body or the point where a limb attaches.

Distal

Farther away from the trunk of the body or the point where a limb attaches.

Ipsilateral

Same side of the body in relation to a specific point or structure.

Contralateral

Opposite side of the body in relation to a specific point or structure.

Covalent Bonding

Sharing electrons, strongest bond type.

Ionic Bonding

Transferring electrons, oppositely charged ions attract each other, strong when dry, break easily in water.

Hydrogen Bonding

Weak attraction between polar molecules due to partial charges.

Inorganic Molecules

Compounds that do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., water, salts, acids, bases).

Organic Molecules

Compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids).

Hydroxyl (Alcohol) Functional Group

X-OH

Phosphate Functional Group

X-PO4

Carboxylic (Carboxyl) Functional Group

X-COOH

Amino Functional Group

X-NH2

Aldehyde Functional Group

X-COH

Ester Functional Group

XC-O2-X

Methyl Functional Group

X-CH3

Ketone Functional Group

XX-CO

Organelles

Nucleus, Ribosome, Golgi, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria

Nucleus Function

Control center

Ribosome Function

Protein production

Golgi Function

Protein packaging

Endoplasmic Reticulum Function

Transport network

Mitochondria Function

Energy production (ATP)

Parts of Basic Feedback System

Stimulus, Receptor, Input, Control Center, Effector Response

Stimulus

A change in the environment that produces a change in the controlled variable.

Receptor

Monitors change, communicates with control center.

Input

Information received by receptors, travels along an afferent pathway to the control center.

Control Center

Generates output that travels along an efferent pathway to the effector.

Effector Response

Receives output from control center, produces the response.

Homeostasis

The process through which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite external changes, involving feedback mechanisms.

Negative Feedback Loop

A response that reverses or opposes the original stimulus, bringing the variable back toward the set point.

Positive Feedback Loop

A response that enhances or amplifies the original stimulus, pushing the variable further away from the set point.