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What does the immune system do?

The immune system is responsible for defending the body against harmful microorganisms and pathogens.

How can microorganisms enter the body?

Microorganisms can enter the body through various surfaces, exploiting opportunities to mount an attack on the body’s mechanisms.

What are pathogens?

iny living things, like bacteria or viruses, that can make you sick

What is immunity?

the body’s ability to remember and protect against diseases after being exposed to them.

What is a disease?

any condition that impairs or can impair normal body function, causing a change from a healthy state.

What is the difference between infectious and noninfectious diseases

Infectious diseases can be passed from one person to another, while noninfectious diseases cannot.

What causes infectious diseases?

Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens that enter the body.

What are the five main groups of human pathogens?

bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, and microscopic parasites.

What diseases are caused by bacteria?

Bacteria can cause pneumonia, botulism, typhoid fever, tetanus, tuberculosis, syphilis, and diphtheria.

What diseases are caused by viruses?

Viruses cause colds, influenza, measles, chickenpox, polio, hepatitis B, AIDS, and some cancers.

Why are viruses difficult to control?

Viruses are highly adaptable and can change forms quickly, making them hard to eliminate.

What diseases are caused by fungi?

Fungi cause skin diseases such as tinea and ringworm.

What diseases are caused by protozoans?

Protozoans cause illnesses such as amoebic dysentery, sleeping sickness, and malaria.

What damage can microscopic parasites cause?

Microscopic parasites like roundworms, flukes, and tapeworms can cause severe tissue damage in humans.

What is one method to counteract pathogens?

to stop pathogens from entering the body.

What is the first line of defense in the body?

The first line of defense includes the external barriers, such as skin and mucus membranes, which block pathogens from entering.

Are the first line of defense barriers specific or nonspecific?

The first line of defense is nonspecific, meaning it attempts to block all pathogens and foreign bodies.

What are some examples of external barriers in the body?

Examples include the skin, which is toughened by keratin, and mucus membranes that line the lungs, gut, and ears

How do mucus membranes protect the body?

Mucus membranes have mucus and microscopic hairs called cilia that trap bacteria and viruses and carry foreign particles away from the body’s interior.

How can pathogens enter the body?

Pathogens can enter through openings like the mouth, nose, ears, reproductive system, and through skin openings like pores and wounds.

Why is handwashing important in preventing pathogen entry?

Handwashing can significantly reduce the number of pathogens that might enter the body, as pathogens are present everywhere.

What did the handwashing experiment demonstrate?

The experiment showed that thorough handwashing reduces the number of pathogens that might be passed to the body, as seen with fewer cultures on the agar plate.

What happens if pathogens bypass the first line of defense?

Pathogens that bypass the first line of defense can enter the gut or other parts of the body, potentially causing infection

What are agar plates used for in pathogen detection?

Agar plates are used to grow and detect pathogens, providing a visual representation of contamination levels.

What is the role of blood cells in the immune system?

Blood cells help the immune system fight pathogens

What are stem cells in the bone marrow responsible for?

Stem cells in the bone marrow are responsible for producing all of the body's blood cells, both red and white.

What is the primary role of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?

The primary role of red blood cells is to carry oxygen throughout the body.

What is the percentage of blood made up by red blood cells in humans?

Red blood cells make up about 45% of the blood volume in humans.

What is the main difference between red blood cells and white blood cells?

Red blood cells have no nucleus and are focused on oxygen transport, while white blood cells (leukocytes) are involved in defending the body against pathogens.

What are platelets, and what is their function?

Platelets are fragments of bone marrow cells that help in blood clotting, though they are not true cells.

What is the second line of defense in the immune system?

The second line of defense is a nonspecific immune response, activated when pathogens enter the body.

How does the body respond to pathogens entering through a break in the skin?

The immune system initiates the nonspecific immune response, causing inflammation and increased blood flow to the area.

What is the function of phagocytes?

Phagocytes consume invading pathogens, like bacteria, by engulfing them and breaking them down using enzymes.

What are monocytes, and how do they function as phagocytes?

Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that mature into larger phagocytes called macrophages after leaving the blood vessels.

Where are macrophages found in the body?

Macrophages are found in various parts of the body, including connective tissue, the brain, lungs, kidneys, and spleen.

How do phagocytes identify which cells to consume?

Phagocytes can distinguish between self cells and foreign particles, consuming only foreign invaders.

What is the role of complement proteins in the immune response?

Complement proteins help identify and eliminate invaders by attracting phagocytes, coating bacteria, or rupturing bacterial membranes

What is essential for the immune system to recognize and distinguish cells?

The immune system relies on special proteins called markers on cell membranes to identify self from non-self cells.

What are stem cells in bone marrow?

Stem cells in bone marrow are actively dividing cells that produce all of the body's blood cells, including red and white blood cells.

What is the role of red blood cells?

Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body and make up about 45% of human blood volume.

What is the function of complement proteins?

Complement proteins help identify and eliminate invaders by attracting phagocytes, marking bacteria, or rupturing bacterial membranes.

What is self vs. non-self recognition in the immune system?

The immune system distinguishes between its own cells (self) and foreign cells (non-self) to target invaders while protecting its own.

What is the third line of defense in the immune system?

The third line of defense is the specific immune response involving B and T lymphocytes, which respond to particular pathogens.

Where do B and T lymphocytes originate?

produced in bone marrow,

What is the blood-based immune response?

The blood-based immune response, or humoral antibody response, involves B lymphocytes producing antibodies to neutralize antigens.

What happens when B cells encounter an antigen?

B cells activate and produce plasma cells, which release antibodies that bind to and deactivate the antigen.

What is the function of memory cells?

Memory cells remember the characteristics of an antigen to speed up future immune responses when the antigen is encountered again.

What is the role of T cells in the immune response?

T cells help regulate immune function, with helper T cells assisting B cells and suppressor T cells modulating the immune response.

What is the cell-mediated immune response?

The cell-mediated immune response involves T lymphocytes that recognize and attack foreign cells directly or regulate B cell activity.

What are helper T cells?

essential for the efficient function of other lymphocytes and support both B cells and cytotoxic T cells in immune responses.

How does a helper T cell stimulate a B cell

A helper T cell binds to a B cell presenting the same antigen, triggering the B cell to produce antibodies.

Why is the immune system considered a cooperative system?

The immune system relies on cooperation between various immune cells to defend the body against disease.

Why can't body cells store enough DNA for every possible antibody?

Body cells don't have the capacity to store the enormous amount of DNA needed to produce antibodies for millions of possible antigens.

What is the clonal selection theory?

suggests that immune cells clone themselves in response to specific antigens.

What are the 5 main groups of human pathogens?

Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Protozoa, Helminths

A disease casued by bacteria is?

Tuberculosis

A disease caused by a virus is called

Influenza

A disease caused by fungi is called

Candidiasis

A disease caused by protozoa is called

Malaria

A disease caused by Helminths is called

Hookworm

What are the ways pathogens gain entry to the body?

Pathogens can enter through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, urogenital tract, broken skin, or mucous membranes.

What is the first line of defense and how does it function?

The first line of defense consists of physical and chemical barriers, such as skin, mucous membranes, and enzymes, which prevent pathogen entry.

Why is the second line of defense called “non-specific”?

It is called “non-specific” because it does not target a specific pathogen but instead responds to general features of pathogens, like inflammation or fever.

What is inflammation?

Inflammation is the body’s response to injury or infection, involving swelling, redness, heat, and pain to help fight pathogens.

What are the 5 types of leukocytes?

Neutrophils

Lymphocytes (B cells, T cells)

Monocytes

Eosinophils

Basophils

What are the functions of complement proteins?

Complement proteins assist in the immune response by marking pathogens for destruction, promoting inflammation, and directly attacking pathogens.

What are the classes of the immune responses of the body?

Innate immunity: Immediate, non-specific defense

Acquired immunity: Adaptive defense, specific to pathogens

What 2 types of cells do B cells differentiate into? What are their functions?

Plasma cells: Produce antibodies

Memory cells: Remember the pathogen for faster future response

What does “antigen” stand for?

An antigen is any substance that triggers an immune response, often by causing the body to produce antibodies.

What do the antibodies do?

Antibodies bind to specific antigens on pathogens, neutralizing them, marking them for destruction, or preventing them from entering cells.

What are the types of T cells? What are their functions?

• Helper T cells: Activate B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages.

• Cytotoxic T cells: Kill infected or cancerous cells.

• Regulatory T cells: Maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune responses.

• Memory T cells: Provide rapid response if the pathogen is encountered again

What does an antigen-presenting cell do?

Antigen-presenting cells display antigens on their surface to activate T cells, initiating an immune response.

What “problem” does clonal selection theory help explain?

It explains how the immune system produces a vast variety of antibodies despite having limited DNA storage for antibody genes.

What is acquired immunity?

Acquired immunity is the protection the body develops after exposure to a specific pathogen, either through infection or vaccination.

What is a vaccine and what kind of immunity does it create in the body?

A vaccine contains a weakened or inactivated pathogen or its components. It creates induced active immunity by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies without causing the disease.