Psychology

Classical Conditioning

Type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus.

Association

A mental connection formed between different concepts or events.

Neutral Stimulus

Stimulus with no associations; for example, the ringing of a bell.

Unconditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning; example: food.

Unconditioned Response

Natural, automatic response to a stimulus that occurs without prior learning; example: salivation at the presentation of food.

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with a specific response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response

A learned reaction in response to a previously neutral stimulus after it has been paired with a naturally occurring stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

The process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a conditioned stimulus, creating a second-level conditioned response.

Counterconditioning

Behavioral therapy technique where a previously negative conditioned response is replaced with a positive one by pairing that stimulus with a pleasant experience.

Aversive Conditioning

Type of classical conditioning where an unwanted behavior is paired with an unpleasant stimulus to create an aversion to that behavior.

Taste Aversion

A learned avoidance of a specific food or taste due to a negative experience.

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning where an organism acquires a conditioned response after a single pairing of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a conditioned response is first established.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned behavior when reinforcement is no longer provided.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of a previously extinct conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

Biological Preparedness

Concept that organisms are naturally inclined to learn associations between certain stimuli and responses quickly, particularly those related to survival.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to it.

Operant Conditioning

Learning process where behavior is modified by its consequences.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Key Steps in Operant Conditioning

Shaping, Chaining, Reinforcement/Punishment, Schedules of Reinforcement.

Law of Effect

Principle that behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that naturally satisfies a basic biological need; example: food, water.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power by being associated with a primary reinforcer.

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthens a behavior by adding something pleasant.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthens a behavior by removing something unpleasant.

Positive Punishment

Something unpleasant is added to reduce a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Something pleasant is removed to reduce a behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

Schedule where a reward is given every time a desired behavior is exhibited.

Partial Reinforcement

Schedule where a reward is given occasionally and not every time.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reward is given after a set number of responses have occurred.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reward is given after a random number of responses have occurred.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reward is given after the same amount of time every time.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reward is given at random time intervals.

Successive Approximations

Reinforcing behaviors that gradually get closer to a desired target behavior.

Shaping

Rewarding any behavior leading to the targeted behavior.

Chaining

Shaped behaviors are linked together to reach the targeted behavior.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between stimuli and respond only to the discriminative stimulus.

Generalization

The tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for an animal to revert back to its natural, instinctual behaviors.

Superstitious Behavior

A learned behavior that occurs when an action is accidentally reinforced.

Learned Helplessness

Psychological state where an individual believes they are powerless to change their situation.

Observational Learning

The process of learning a new behavior by watching and imitating the actions of others.

Social Learning Theory

The idea that people learn new behavior by observing and imitating others, influenced by attention, motivation, and attitudes.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating the behaviors of another person.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behaviors that are likely to be modeled and replicated.

Antisocial Behavior

Negative, destructive, harmful behavior that can be modeled.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing the consequences of another person’s actions.

Insight Learning

Type of learning where a solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear; an 'ah-ha' moment.

Latent Learning

Acquiring knowledge or information without reinforcement; learning that is not immediately apparent.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of a physical space used to navigate and understand spatial relationships.