Locomotion -- Animal Anat

Locomotion

The act of moving from one place to another

Peristaltic Waves

Waves caused bu alternate contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles

White Muscle

Muscle in fish

85% muscle

Glycolytic, fatigues quickly

High intensity, burst swimming

Red Muscle

Muscle in fish

Oxidative, slow to fatigue

Slow, steady cruising 

Homogenous Fiber

Type of fiber that makes up fish muscle

Motor Neurons

Nerves from the CNS that control muscle contraction

Central Pattern Generators

Areas of the CNS that controls timing of muscle contraction

Flexion

Limb bends at a joint and moves inward towards the body

Extension

Limb straightens and moves away from the body

Antagonistic Muscles

Separate muscles that induce flexion and extension

Locomotor Module

All muscles responsible for a type of movement 

Actinmyosin ATPase

ATPase used for cross-bridge cycling

Na+/K+ ATPase

ATPase used for reestablishing ion gradients

Ca2+ ATPase

ATPase used to transport Ca2+ into SR

Glycogen, ATP, Phosphocreatine

Energy stores used for exhaustion recovery

Cori Cycle

How lactate produced from activity is repackaged as glucose by the liver and can return and be repackaged into glycogen

0.7

Respiratory quotient of lipids

1.0

Respiratory quotient of carbohydrates

Cortisol

Promotes liver glycogen breakdown

Insulin

Enhances glucose uptake by the muscle

Capillary Density, Blood Flow, Hemoglobin Oxygen Affinity

Rate of O2 delivery depends on

Short

Diffusion distance in red/oxidative muscle

Longer

Diffusion distance in white muscle, shorter capillaries

Hydrostatic Skeleton

Fluid-filled chamber

Earthworms

Exoskeleton

External Skeleton

Arthropods

Endoskeleton

Internal Skeleton

Vertebrates

Cuticle

Made up of long-chain carbohydrate chitin plus small amounts of proteins and phenols

Hypodermis

Excretes epithelial cells beneath the cuticle

Direct Muscles

Muscle attached directly to the base of the wing

Slower flight

Dragonfly

Indirect Muscles

Muscle attaches to the exoskeleton

Asynchronous muscle

Much faster

Cartilage

Makes up the skeleton in water-based animals

Sharks, agnathans, rays

Bone and Cartilage

Makes up the skeleton in land-based animals

Most recent fish and tetrapods

Chondrocytes

Cells that produce cartilage

Osteoblasts

Cells that produce bone

Osteoclasts

Cells that dissolve cartilage and bone

Osteocytes

Osteoblasts that are surrounded by an ossified extracellular matrix

Ligament

Attaches a bone to another bone

Tendon

Attaches a bone to a muscle

Fibroblasts

Produce parallel fibers of collagen

Three elements of a lever

Fulcrum, weight, force

Fulcrum

Point of rotation or joint

Weight

Force exerted by the object to be moved

Force

Force exerted by muscle contraction

Gravity and Medium fluid properties

Two main environmental factors influencing locomotion

Buoyancy

Upward force that counteracts the effects of gravity

Wax Esters

Large droplets of lipids in zooplankton

Method of buoyancy

Squalene

Steroid compound in the liver of sharks

Method of buoyancy

Laminar Flow

Slow, smooth layers of fluid

Turbulent Flow

Fast, chaotic flow of fluid

True Flight

Remain airborne for long periods of time

Flapping

Rapid wing movement

Soaring

Use lift from natural air currents to overcome gravity

Long, thin wings

Wing size for large, long distance flyers

Short, wide wings

Wing size for small, short distance/complex terrain flyers

Homocercal Tails

Efficient tail mode, seen in faster sharks and bony fish

Heterocercal Tails

Tilts the shark up a bit

No clear purpose 

Pectoral Fins

Fins that generate lift and stabilize

Ratites

Use wings for balance while running with powerful legs

Ostriches, emus, kiwis

Tadpole

Larval form of frogs and toads

Nymph

Larval form of dragonflies, mosquitoes, and mayflies