Ap Psych Development test

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

teratogens

(literally, “monster makers”) agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

0- 2 years old

Sensorimotor Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping)

• Object permanence

• Stranger anxiety

2-6/7 years old

Preoperational Representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning

• Pretend play

• Egocentrism

7-11 years old

Concrete operational Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

• Conservation

• Mathematical transformations

12- adult

Formal operational Reasoning abstractly

• Abstract logic

• Potential for mature moral reasoning

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)

Russian developmental psychologist. He studied how a child’s mind feeds on the language of social interaction. —> Scaffold

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Harlows Monkeys

The infants much preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the wire nourishing mother.

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

Konrad Lorenz (1937)

Imprinting

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.

Mary Ainsworth (1979)

Strange situation experiment, 60% of children have secure attachment In their mother’s presence they play comfortably, happily exploring their new environment. When she leaves, they become distressed; when she returns, they seek contact with her.

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed.

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return.

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness.

Mary Ainsworth sensitive parents

infants who were secure attachment

Mary Ainsworth insensitive parents

infants who were insecurely attached

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Authoritarian parents

are coercive. They impose rules and expect obedience: “Don’t interrupt.” “Keep your room clean.” “Don’t stay out late or you’ll be grounded.” “Why? Because I said so.”

Permissive parents

are unrestraining. They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment.

Negligent parents

are uninvolved. They are neither demanding nor responsive. They are careless, inattentive, and do not seek to have a close relationship with their children.

Authoritative parents

are confrontive. They are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions.

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.

gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman.

agression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.

gender identity

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics.

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex.

Mark Rosenzweig, David Krech

and their colleagues (1962) raised rats either alone in an environment without playthings, or with other rats in an environment enriched with playthings that changed daily. In 14 of 16 repetitions of this basic experiment, rats in the enriched environment developed significantly more cerebral cortex (relative to the rest of the brain’s tissue) than did those in the impoverished environment.

rats living in the enriched environment

which simulated a natural environment, usually developed a heavier and thicker brain cortex

enriched environment

increased brain power

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Preconventional morality (before age 9)

Self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards.

Conventional morality (early adolescence)

Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order.

Postconventional morality (adolescence and beyond)

Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self- defined ethical principles.

Jonathan Haidt

moral intuitions

Erik Erikson (1963)

each stage of life has its own psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution.

Infancy(to 1 year)

trust vs mistrust ; If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust.

toddlerhood (1-3 years old)

Autononomity vs shame and doubt; Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.

Elementary school (6 years to puberty)

Competence vs. inferiority; Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.

Adolescence (teen years into 20s)

Identity vs. role confusion; work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.

Young adulthood (20s to early 40s)

Intimacy vs. isolation Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated.

Middle adulthood (40s to 60s)

Generativity vs. stagnation; Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

Late adulthood (late 60s and up)

Integrity vs. despair; Reflecting on their lives, may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

intimacy

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia.

Alzheimer’s disease

a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.