AP U.S. History: Foundations, Revolution, and Early Republic

Economic ("Hamiltonian") republicanism

A vision of a strong central government supporting commerce, industry, and a national bank to ensure a stable, prosperous republic.

Democratic ("Painean") republicanism

Emphasized broad political participation, civic virtue, and distrust of centralized power, inspired by Thomas Paine.

Revolutionary ideology versus slavery

The ideals of liberty and equality in the Revolution conflicted with the practice of slavery, creating debates over emancipation and rights.

Postrevolutionary racist theory

After the Revolution, some used pseudo-scientific ideas to justify racial hierarchies and continued enslavement.

The Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. constitution (1781-1789) creating a weak national government with most power retained by states.

The Annapolis Convention

A 1786 meeting of states to discuss trade and commerce problems, leading to calls for a stronger federal government.

Shays's Rebellion

1786-1787 uprising of Massachusetts farmers protesting debt and taxation, highlighting weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

The Constitutional Convention

1787 meeting in Philadelphia where delegates drafted the U.S. Constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation.

James Madison

"Father of the Constitution," Federalist leader, co-author of The Federalist Papers, and fourth U.S. president.

The principle of checks and balances

A system ensuring that each branch of government can limit the power of the others to prevent tyranny.

The Virginia Plan

Proposed representation in Congress based on population, favoring larger states.

The New Jersey Plan

Proposed equal representation for all states, favoring smaller states.

The three-fifths compromise

Allowed states to count three-fifths of enslaved people for representation and taxation purposes.

The Constitution's slave-trade clause and fugitive-slave clause

Slave-trade clause: Congress could not ban the slave trade until 1808. Fugitive-slave clause: Escaped enslaved people must be returned to their owners.

The electoral college

A system for electing the president using electors chosen by states, rather than direct popular vote.

The separation of powers

Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches with distinct functions.

Federalists

Supported a strong central government, the Constitution, and policies promoting commerce and industry.

Antifederalists

Opposed a strong central government, feared tyranny, and demanded a Bill of Rights.

The Federalist Papers

A collection of essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay defending the Constitution and explaining its principles.

The Revenue Act of 1789

Imposed tariffs and taxes to raise money for the new federal government.

The Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments guaranteeing individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religion.

The Judiciary Act of 1789

Established the federal court system, including the Supreme Court and lower federal courts.

Ware v. Hylton and Hylton v. United States

Early Supreme Court cases testing federal authority over states in enforcing treaties and taxation.

George Washington

First U.S. president (1789-1797), set precedents for the executive office and emphasized neutrality in foreign affairs.

Report on Public Credit

Hamilton's plan to fund national debt, pay off war bonds, and establish financial credibility for the U.S.

Assumption of state debts

Federal government took over state debts from the Revolutionary War to unify the nation financially.

Location of nation's capital

Compromise placed the capital on the Potomac River (Washington, D.C.) in exchange for support of Hamilton's debt plan.

The Bank of the United States

National bank proposed by Hamilton to stabilize currency, regulate credit, and handle government funds.

Strict constructionist vs. broad constructionist

Strict: Federal government can only do what Constitution explicitly allows. Broad: Federal government can take implied actions to fulfill its duties.

Defense of the Constitutionality of the Bank

Hamilton argued that the Necessary and Proper Clause allowed Congress to create the bank.

Report on Manufactures

Hamilton's plan to encourage industrial development and protective tariffs to strengthen the economy.

The Whiskey Rebellion

1794 uprising of farmers against excise taxes on whiskey, suppressed by federal troops to assert national authority.

The 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France

France agreed to support the U.S. in the Revolutionary War against Britain.

Citizen Edmond Genêt

French diplomat who tried to recruit American support for France's wars, causing controversy over U.S. neutrality.

Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality

Declared the U.S. would remain neutral in European conflicts, particularly between Britain and France.

The Jay treaty

1794 treaty with Britain resolving postwar issues, securing trade, and avoiding war, but unpopular in the U.S.

The Pinckney Treaty

1795 treaty with Spain granting U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River and access to New Orleans.

Washington's Farewell Address

Warned against political parties, permanent foreign alliances, and regionalism.

The presidential election of 1796

First contested U.S. election; John Adams became president and Thomas Jefferson vice president.

President John Adams

Second U.S. president (1797-1801), faced foreign tensions and domestic opposition, particularly from the Federalists.

The XYZ Affair

French diplomats demanded bribes from U.S. negotiators, leading to anti-French sentiment and the Quasi-War.

The Quasi-War with France

Undeclared naval war (1798-1800) between the U.S. and France over maritime disputes.

The Alien and Sedition Acts

Federal laws limiting immigration and restricting criticism of the government, sparking constitutional debates.

Virginia and Kentucky resolutions

State resolutions asserting the right to nullify unconstitutional federal laws, written by Jefferson and Madison.

The Convention of 1800

Ended the Quasi-War with France and restored peaceful relations.

The election of 1800

Peaceful transfer of power from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans; Jefferson defeated Adams.

The Twelfth Amendment

Revised the electoral process to have separate votes for president and vice president.

"Midnight justices"

Federalist judges appointed by John Adams at the end of his term to maintain influence in the judiciary.

President Thomas Jefferson

Third U.S. president (1801-1809), emphasized limited government, agrarian ideals, and the Louisiana Purchase.

Federal District Judge John Pickering

Impeached and removed for misconduct; one of the early tests of judicial accountability.

Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase

Impeached but acquitted, strengthening judicial independence.

Chief Justice John Marshall

Shaped U.S. constitutional law, expanded federal power, and established judicial review.

Marbury v. Madison

1803 case establishing the Supreme Court's authority to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.

The theory of judicial review

The judiciary can interpret the Constitution and invalidate laws that violate it.

The Hamilton-Burr duel

1804 duel in which Aaron Burr fatally shot Alexander Hamilton over political and personal conflicts.

The Louisiana Purchase

1803 acquisition of French territory doubling the U.S., secured the Mississippi River, and promoted westward expansion.

The battle of Tippecanoe

1811 U.S. victory over Native American forces led by Tecumseh's confederacy, weakening resistance in the Northwest.

The impressment of American sailors

British practice of forcing U.S. sailors into the Royal Navy, a major cause of the War of 1812.

The Non-Importation Act

1806 law banning British goods to pressure Britain to respect American neutrality.

The Chesapeake affair

1807 British attack on the U.S. warship Chesapeake, fueling anti-British sentiment.

The concept of "peaceable coercion"

Jefferson's strategy of using economic measures like embargoes to influence foreign powers without war.

The Embargo Act

1807 law banning U.S. exports to pressure Britain and France; it hurt the U.S. economy.

The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809

Reopened trade with all nations except Britain and France, replacing the failed Embargo Act.

Macon's Bill Number 2

1810 law promising to resume trade with the first nation that respected U.S. neutrality, aimed at Britain and France.

The War of 1812

Conflict with Britain over maritime rights, impressment, and frontier tensions, resulting in a stalemate.

The Battle of New Orleans

1815 U.S. victory under Andrew Jackson after the war officially ended, boosting national pride.

The Treaty of Ghent

1814 treaty ending the War of 1812, restoring prewar boundaries without addressing causes.

The presidential and congressional elections of 1812

Madison re-elected president despite war criticism; Federalists lost influence.

The Hartford Convention

1814-1815 New England Federalist meeting opposing the War of 1812, seen as unpatriotic and weakening the party.

President Madison's nationalist program

Policies promoting internal improvements, protective tariffs, and a national bank to strengthen the U.S.

The Second Bank of the United States

Chartered in 1816 to stabilize currency, regulate state banks, and fund national economic growth.

The Tariff of 1816

Protective tariff aimed at promoting American manufacturing after the War of 1812.

The "Bonus Bill"

Proposed by Calhoun in 1817 to fund internal improvements using national bank profits; vetoed by Madison.

The "Era of Good Feelings"

Period of political unity and nationalism during Monroe's presidency (1817-1825), marked by the decline of the Federalists.

John Quincy Adams

Sixth president (1825-1829), focused on internal improvements, diplomacy, and modernization.

The Rush-Bagot Treaty

1817 agreement with Britain limiting naval forces on the Great Lakes.

The Convention of 1818

Set U.S.-Canada border at the 49th parallel and allowed joint occupation of Oregon Territory.

The Adams-Onís Treaty

1819 treaty acquiring Florida from Spain and defining U.S.-Spanish borders.

The Monroe Doctrine

1823 policy declaring the Western Hemisphere off-limits to European colonization and interference.

The Tallmadge amendment

Proposed (1819) to gradually abolish slavery in Missouri, sparking sectional debate and leading to the Missouri Compromise.

Growth of the free black population and reactions to racism

The free black population expanded in northern cities and some southern regions after the Revolution. Free black Americans responded by forming independent churches, schools, mutual aid societies, and advocating for abolition and civil rights.

Evolution of constitutional theories at the state level

Early state constitutions experimented with separation of powers, bicameral legislatures, and expanded voting rights. Some states emphasized popular sovereignty and civil liberties, while others limited suffrage to property owners.

Problems faced by the Confederation Congress

Lacked power to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws, leaving the national government weak. Struggled with debt repayment, interstate disputes, and foreign relations, often resolving issues ineffectively.

Forces leading to the Constitutional Convention

Economic instability, Shays's Rebellion, and interstate trade conflicts highlighted weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Calls for a stronger central government and protection of property rights led to the Philadelphia Convention.

Major disagreements in drafting the Constitution

Representation: Large vs. small states → Resolved by the Great Compromise (bicameral Congress). Slavery: Southern vs. Northern interests → Resolved by the Three-Fifths Compromise and slave-trade clause. Federal vs. state power → Balanced through separation of powers and checks and balances.

Basic provisions and principles of the Constitution

Established a federal government with three branches, a system of checks and balances, and a bicameral legislature. Principles include popular sovereignty, limited government, federalism, and protection of individual rights.

Debate over ratification and Federalist success

Federalists argued the Constitution created a strong, stable government; Antifederalists feared centralized power.

Ratification

Succeeded due to Federalist persuasion through The Federalist Papers and promise of a Bill of Rights.

Immediate problems faced by President and Congress in 1790

Issues: national debt, weak economy, foreign threats, lack of judiciary and executive precedent. Resolved by: Hamilton's financial program, establishing a judiciary, funding assumptions, and diplomatic treaties.

Hamilton's economic program

Components: Funding national debt, assumption of state debts, creation of a national bank, protective tariffs. Reflected belief in strong central government, commerce, and industry; opposed by strict constructionists.

Federalists vs. Republicans

Federalists: Strong central government, pro-commerce, supported Hamilton's programs. Republicans: Limited government, agrarian ideals, opposed high taxes and central power.

Whiskey Rebellion

Federalists used force, Republicans criticized.

Democratic societies

Republicans encouraged political activism; Federalists feared disorder.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Federalists passed; Republicans opposed, leading to Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.

Debate over foreign policy (1789-1801)

Federalists favored Britain; Republicans favored France. Domestic impact: Party division, press battles, and debates over neutrality, taxes, and military preparation.

Presidential election of 1796

John Adams (Federalist) vs. Thomas Jefferson (Republican). Adams won presidency; Jefferson became vice president due to electoral system quirks.

Presidential and congressional elections of 1800

Jefferson and Burr tied; House of Representatives decided outcome. Peaceful transfer of power to Democratic-Republicans demonstrated constitutional stability.

Development of early political ideology and Federalist decline

Republican ideals of limited government, popular sovereignty, and agrarianism gained popularity. Federalists declined due to unpopular policies, opposition to war of 1812, and loss of regional support.

Democratic-Republicans' implementation of philosophy

Reduced federal spending, eliminated excise taxes, maintained national bank, and avoided foreign entanglements. Emphasized agrarian economy and strict construction of the Constitution.

Louisiana Purchase

Jefferson purchased the territory from France in 1803 for $15 million, doubling U.S. size. Expanded westward settlement, enhanced trade opportunities, and increased national power.