MCB 244 Exam 1

Anatomy

study of structure

Physiology

study of function

Inspection

look at appearance

Palpation

feeling a structure with the hands

Auscultation

listening to sounds produced by body

Percussion

tap on the body, feel for resistance, and listen to emitted sound for

abnormalities

Dissection

cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue

relationships; use a cadaver, a dead human body

Comparative anatomy

study (for example, dissection) of multiple species to

learn about form, function, and evolution

Exploratory surgery

opening the living body to see what is wrong; now

replaced by medical imaging to view inside without surgery

Radiology

branch of medicine specializing in imaging

Gross anatomy

study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Histology (microscopic anatomy)

examination of tissues with microscope

Histopathology

microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Cytology

study of structure and function of cells; fine detail (ultrastructure) may

be resolved using an electron microscope

Neurophysiology

physiology of nervous system

Endocrinology

physiology of hormones

Pathophysiology

mechanisms of disease

Comparative physiology

Study of different species to learn about body functions. Basis for much of our understanding of human physiology and the

development of new drugs and medical procedures

Theory of natural selection

explanation of how species

originate and change through time; help understand the human

body

Charles Darwin

influential biologist who presented first well-

supported theory of how evolution works

Evolution

Change in genetic composition of population of organisms; Example: development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics

Natural selection

How evolution works

Selection pressures

forces that promote reproductive success of some individuals

more than others; example: predators

Adaptations

inherited features of anatomy and physiology that evolved in

response to pressures and that enable organism to succeed; example: better

camouflage

arboreal

tree-dwelling

Opposable thumbs and prehensile hands

grasp branches and manipulate objects

stereoscopic vision

depth perception

Bipedalism

standing and walking on two legs

Australopithecus

a bipedal primate genus that lived more

than 3 million years ago

Homo genus

appeared 2.5 million years ago

• Taller, larger brain volume, tool-making

Homo erectus

appeared 1.8 million years ago

• Migrated from Africa to parts Asia

Homo sapiens

originated in Africa 200,000 years ago

Organism

a single, complete individual

Organ system

group of organs with a unique collective function; for example:

circulation, respiration, digestion

Organ

structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to

carry out a function

• An organ has defined anatomical boundaries; can have organs within organs

Tissue

similar cells and cell products forming a discrete region of an organ and

performs a specific function

Cell

smallest unit to carry out all basic functions of life

Organelle

structure within a cell that carry out a function

Molecule

particle composed of two or more atoms

• Largest molecules (proteins, fats, DNA) called macromolecules

Atom

smallest particle with unique chemical identity

Reductionism

heory that large, complex systems can be understood by

studying their simpler components

• Essential to scientific thinking, but some properties cannot be predicted

from individual parts

Holism

“emergent properties” occur as we ascend the levels of

organization; these cannot be predicted from the properties of individual

parts alone

• Humans are more than the sum of their parts

Anatomical Variation

No two humans are exactly alike; even identical twins have differences

Organization

living things exhibit a higher level of organization than

nonliving things

Cellular composition

living matter is always compartmentalized into

one or more cells

Metabolism

the sum of internal chemical change

Responsiveness/exitability

ability to sense and react to changes in

environment (stimuli)

Movement

movement of entire organism or of substances within the

organism

Homeostasis

the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that

oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Development

change in form or function over time

Differentiation

transformation of unspecialized cells into cells with a

committed task

Growth

increase in size; occurs through chemical change

Reproduction

organisms produce copies of themselves; pass genes to

offspring

Evolution

genetic change from generation to generation; occurs due to

mutations (change in DNA structure)

Observe in population as a whole; a single organism does

not evolve over the course of its life

Physiological Variation

Variations in sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity, genetics

and environment

Claude Bernard

noted fairly constant internal conditions despite changing

external conditions (for example, temperature)

Walter Cannon

coined the term homeostasis

Negative feedback

The body senses a change and “negates” or reverses it. mechanism that keeps a variable close to set point; the body senses a change and reverses it

dynamic equilibrium

change within a limited range around a

set point

vasodilation

If too warm, skin blood vessels dilate and sweating

begins (heat-losing mechanism)

vasoconstriction

If too cold, skin blood vessels constrict and shivering

begins (heat-gaining mechanism)

Receptor

structure that senses change in the body (for example, the

baroreceptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)

Integrating (control) center

control center that processes the sensory

information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (for example,

cardiac center of the brainstem)

Effector

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to

restore homeostasis (for example, the heart)

Positive feedback

self-amplifying cycle

• Leads to greater change in the same direction, as opposed to the corrective action of negative feedback

flow down gradients

Matter and energy tend to ________

Gradient

difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or

pressure between two points

pressure gradient

Blood flows down a _______, from a place of higher pressure to

a place of lower pressure

concentration gradient

Chemicals flow down a __________

electrical gradient

Charged particles flow down a _______

Electrochemical gradient

combination of concentration, electrical

gradients

thermal gradient

Heat flows down a _____________

eponym

Some structures named after people

Physical half-life

ime required for 50% to decay to a stable state

Biological half-life

time required for 50% to disappear from the

body

Free radicals

unstable, highly reactive particles with an unusual

number of electrons

Produced by normal metabolic reactions, radiation, certain chemicals

• Trigger reactions that destroy molecules, and can cause cancer, death of heart

tissue, and aging

• Example: superoxide anion, O2

Antioxidants

chemicals that neutralize free radicals

• Example: superoxide dismutase (SOD) is an antioxidant enzyme that converts

superoxide anion into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide

• Selenium, vitamin E, vitamin C, and carotenoids are antioxidants obtained

through the diet

Colloids

mixtures of protein and water

Many can change from liquid to gel state within and between cells

• Defined by the following physical properties:

• Particles range from 1–100 nm in size

• Scatter light and are usually cloudy

• Particles too large to pass through semipermeable membrane

• Particles remain permanently mixed with the solvent when mixture stands

Suspension

Defined by the following physical properties:

• Particles exceed 100 nm

• Too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes

• Cloudy or opaque in appearance

• Separates on standing

• Example: blood cells in blood plasma

Emulsion

suspension of one liquid in another

Catabolism

Energy-releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions

• Breaks covalent bonds

• Produces smaller molecules

Anabolism

Energy-storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions

• Requires energy input

• Example: production of protein or fat

Sucrose

glucose + fructose

Lactose

glucose + galactose

Maltose

glucose + glucose

Proteoglycans

macromolecules that are more carbohydrate than

protein

• Form gels that hold cells and tissues together; fill umbilical cord and eye

• Joint lubrication; responsible for the rubbery texture of cartilage

Moiety

each component of a conjugated macromolecule

Eicosanoids

20-carbon compounds derived from a fatty acid called

arachidonic acid

• Hormone-like chemical signals between cells

prostaglandins

Function in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions,

blood vessel diameter

Cholesterol

“parent” steroid from which other steroids are synthesized

• Important for nervous system function and structural integrity of all cell

membranes

• 15% of our cholesterol comes from diet

• 85% is internally synthesized (mostly in liver)

prosthetic group

Conjugated proteins contain a non-amino acid moiety called a

_____________ covalently bound to them

• Example: hemoglobin contains four complex iron-containing rings

called a heme moiety (see previous slide)

Keratin

tough structural protein of hair, nails, skin surface

Collagen

contained in deeper layers of skin, bones, cartilage, and teeth

kinases

phosphorylation is carried out by ______

Squamous

thin, flat, scaly

Cuboidal

squarish-looking

Columnar

taller than wide

Polygonal

irregularly angular shapes, multiple sides

Stellate

starlike shape

Spheroid to ovoid

round to oval