Paper 3: History of the Americas: Civil rights and social movements in the Americas post-1945

Indigenous peoples and civil rights in the Americas

- After centuries of oppression and the American government denying them simple rights, up to 25,000 Native Americans fought for the American side in World War II. The educational opportunities that Collier and the BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs) worked towards began to show results, aided by Roosevelt's GI Bill which provided college access for WWII veterans. More Native Americans were employed in the BIA. All these small movements helped the Native population become less dependent on non-Natives to provide them with the skills to advocate for themselves. Although the progress was slow, by 1945 it began to show as more Native Americans were becoming educated, were granted and enforced their voting rights, and formed their own National Congress of American Indians, giving the indigenous population a national voice. Native Americans (as well as African Americans) experienced an increased consciousness of rights while fighting overseas, inspiring them to question the paternalism of the US government. Still, Native American campaigns did not gain speed in the immediate years after WWII due to the influence of Cold War paranoia and McCarthyism. There became comfort in following "The American Way" which excluded all colored people and their ethnic backgrounds. If minority groups were to question government policies, they could run the risk of being labelled communists.

African Americans and the civil rights movement: origins

-opposing Jim Crow laws as well as Black Codes

-felt that they deserved basic human rights after the passing of the 13th-15th amendments

African Americans and the civil rights movement: tactics and organization

-split between non-violent methods of resistance to violent methods of provocation

African Americans and the civil rights movement: the US Supreme Court and legal challenges to segregation in education

-reemergence of the judiciary, including the Supreme Court, in its role as protector of individual liberties against majority power

-Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision of 1954

African Americans and the civil rights movement: ending of segregation in the South (1955-80)

President JFK supported enforcement of desegregation in schools and public facilities

Role of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in the civil rights movement

-The Montgomery bus boycott proved to the world that the African-American community could unite and organize a successful protest movement.

-King believed in the power of nonviolent resistance; he appealed for peace and racial harmony.

-After the bus boycott ended, King joined with ministers and civil rights leaders in 1957 to found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Its purpose was "to carry on nonviolent crusades against the evils of second-class citizenship."

-Martin Luther King, Jr., and the SCLC lead a series of demonstrations help desegregate Birmingham, Alabama, a city that had a reputation for racial violence.

-Continued protests, an economic boycott, and negative media coverage finally convinced Birmingham officials to end segregation. This stunning civil rights victory inspired African Americans across the nation.

-Martin Luther King, Jr., objected to the Black Power movement. He believed that preaching violence could only end in grief.

-On April 3, 1968, King was shot by James Earl Ray.

The rise of radical African American activism (1965-68)

-In the mid 1960s, clashes between white authority and black civilians spread like wildfire.

-In New York City in July 1964, an encounter between white police and African-American teenagers ended in the death of a 15-year-old student. This sparked a race riot in central Harlem.

-Many riots and violent clashes broke out in the years, 1966-1967 due to racial disturbances.

-Leaders like Malcolm X promoted the racial riots.

Black Panthers

-In Oakland, California, in October 1966, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded a political party known as the Black Panthers to fight police brutality in the ghetto.

-The party advocated self-sufficiency for African-American communities, as well as full employment and decent housing. Members maintained that African Americans should be exempt from military service because an unfair number of black youths had been drafted to serve in Vietnam.

-On March 1, 1968, the Kerner Commission was appointed by President Johnson to study the causes of urban violence. "White racism" was found to be the number one cause.

-Congress passed the most important civil rights legislation since Reconstruction, including the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which ended discrimination in housing.

Black Power

The phrase "Black Power" was created by activist, Stokely Carmichael who urged SNCC to stop recruiting whites and to focus on developing African-American pride.

Malcolm X

-He studied the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, the head of the Nation of Islam, or the Black Muslims.

-As he gained a following, the brilliant thinker and engaging speaker openly preached Elijah Muhammad's views that whites were the cause of the black condition and that blacks should separate from white society.

-He called for armed self defense.

-After taking a pilgrimage to Saudi Arabia, Malcom X radically changed his views towards whites and no longer believed in racial differences.

-Because of his split with the Black Muslims, Malcolm believed his life might be in danger.

-On February 21, 1965, while giving a speech in Harlem, the 39-year-old Malcolm X was shot and killed.

The role of governments in civil rights movements in the Americas

-all branches impacted the civil rights movement

-President JFK supported enforcement of desegregation in schools and public facilities

-Attorney General Robert Kennedy brought more than 50 lawsuits in four states to secure black Americans' right to vote

-President LBJ was personally committed to achieving civil rights goals

under LBJ, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965

-Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination of all kinds based on race, color, religion, or national origin and provides federal government with powers to enforce desegregation

-advocated civil rights even though he knew it would cost the Democratic Party the South in next presidential election

-FBI director J. Edgar Hoover concerned about possible Communist influence in civil rights movement and personally antagonistic to Martin Luther King, Jr.

-used FBI to investigate King and other civil rights leaders

-U.S. District Court Judge Frank M. Johnson, Jr., ruled against segregation and voting rights discrimination in Alabama and made the Selma-to-Montgomery March possible.

-reemergence of the judiciary, including the Supreme Court, in its role as protector of individual liberties against majority power

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision of 1954

Feminist movements in the Americas: reasons for emergence

Women were feeling the sting of discrimination in their involvement with civil rights and antiwar movements, where men took the leading roles. Therefore, many women organized small groups to discuss their concerns, share their life stories, and relate to one another. Many recognized a pattern of sexism and discrimination based on gender.

Feminist movements in the Americas: impact and significance

-The Feminine Mystique: written by Betty Friedan, became a bestseller and helped fire up women across the country to seek something more in their lives.

-Civil Rights Act of 1964: Prohibited discrimination based on race, religion, national origin, and gender. Also created Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to handle discrimination.

-National Organization for Women (NOW): Created to pursue women's goals. The organization pushed for the creation of child-care facilities, and for the EEOC to vigorously enforce the ban on gender discrimination in hiring. This prompted the EEOC to claim sex-segregated job ads illegal and to issue guidelines for employers that they could not refuse to hire a woman for a traditionally male job.

-New York Radical Women: Staged a well-publicized demonstration at Miss America Pageant in which they threw bras girdles, wigs, etc. into a "Freedom Trash Can", and proceeded to crown a sheep as Miss America.

-Gloria Steinem: Made her voice heard on feminism and equality by helping to found the National Women's Political Caucus in 1971. The group encouraged women to seek political office. She also helped create a magazine, Ms., to offer the feminist viewpoint on contemporary issues.

-Congress bans gender discrimination: On "any education program or activity receiving federal assistance". (Higher Education Act)

-Roe v. Wade: 1973 Supreme Court ruling that claimed that women have the right to an abortion in the first trimester of pregnancy.

-Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): 1972 Congress decision to guarantee that both men and women would enjoy same rights and protections under the law.

-New Feminist practices: Protesting girl's exclusion from sports, women using the title "Ms.", women refusing to adopt their husband's last names, colleges opening their doors to women, and working parents were given tax break for child-care expenses.

Hispanic American movement in the US: Cesar Chavez

-Cesar Chavez & Dolores Huerta create the United Farm Workers (UFW). Join Filipino strikers against working conditions and unfair pay.

-UFW march from Delano to Sacramento (25 days)

Hispanic American movement in the US: immigration reform

-Immigration & Naturalization Act limits immigrants to 120,000 per year.

-Mexican American Legal Defense & Education Fund (MALDEF) founded & becomes a major advocate for Latino civil rights

-Equal Education Opportunity Act strived to make bilingual education more readily available in public schools

-U.S. congress expands U.S. Voting Rights Act to provide language assistance at polling stations, increased Latino voters

Youth culture and protests of the 1960s and 1970s: characteristics

Counterculture during the 1960s and 70s identified with the rejection of the "social norms" of the 1950s. The 1950s have been claimed as the "high point" for American culture—our economy was thriving and we had as close to a utopian society as we had ever had (according to some).

Youth culture and protests of the 1960s and 1970s: manifestation of a counter-culture

-The protests of the 60s and 70s were based mainly in student groups. The main group was the SDS—Students for a Democratic Society. This group had a short life (mid 1960s-1969 when it split and formed the Weathermen, a more radical group) however it had a very strong influence.

-The main source of aggravation during this time period was racial segregation, the Vietnam war, women's rights, and rights for homosexuals.

-Many of the protests were against the Vietnam War. Because this was the first televised war, Americans were able to view the atrocities on a nightly basis—this caused a lot of frustration from the student population.