FS Study Notes

1 Yard In Feet

3 Feet

How many Feet is 1 Rod

16.5 Feet

The Formula for Fahrenheit to Celsius

(32ºF-32)*5/9

How does an Invar Tapes expansion compare to a Steel Tapes?

Invar Tape expands and contracts much less due to being 1/3 made of nickel.

How Many Pins are in a set of chaining Pins

11

What is the key feature of an Add Tape?

An add tape has an extra graduated foot beyond the zero mark.

How long is a Gunter’s Chain

66 ft

The area of a square one Gunter’s chain on a side is more nearly.

4400 ft² (66² = 4356)

What is the area of a rectangle 6 Gunter’s Chains long by 5 Gunter’s chains wide.

3 Acres as it is shown below

(66 × 6) * (66 × 5) = 130,680 ft² = 130,680 ft²/43,560 ft² = 3 Acres

The term “height of instrucment” as used in leveling, means

The elevation of the line of sight above the datum being used.

Balancing distances t obacksights and foresights eliminates

1. Collimation error

2. Curvature of the earth errors

3. rod plumb errors

Collimation error and curvature of th earth errors

The curvature of the earth error associated wit hlabeling shot of 1000 ft is most nearly

0.024 ft

What is an advantage of an Invar leveling rod

low coefficient of expansion.

For a typical modern level, the device that defines the line of sight is the

compensator

Multipath Errors are most likely to occur in receiver in which of the following locations?

(a) open field of crops

(b) dense forest

( c ) urban area with numerous tall buildings

(d) right of way of an interstate

( c ) urban area with numerous tall buildings

Elevations determined by GPS are referenced to which of the following?

(a) mean sea level

(b) geoid

( c ) NAVD88

(d) ellipsoid

(d) ellipsoid

Using GPS, a point’s ellipsoidal elevation is determined to be 592.8 ft. From the GEOID03 model, the geoid seperation for that point is -139.4 ft. Most nearly, what is the orthometric height above the geoid at that point.

592.8 ft - (-139.4 ft) = 732 ft

Which of the follow conditions would be expected with an increasing value for PDOP?

(a) more multipath errors

(b) a decrease in positional accuracy

( c ) a greater number of visible satellites

(d) an increase in positional accuracy

(b) a decrease in positional accuracy

The most suitable elevation masks for differential GPS surveys are

(a) 5° at the base and subordinate station

(b) 10° at the base and subordinate station

(c) 10° at the base and 15° at the subordinate station

(d) 15° at the base and 10° at the subordinate station

(c) 10° at the base and 15° at the subordinate station

Compared with single-frequency receivers, dual-frequency receivers generally are associated with which of the following?

(a) lower PDOP values

(b) ability to track a greater number of satellites

(c) fewer errors due to atmospheric effect

(d) fewer ephemeris erros

(c) fewer errors due to atmospheric effect

With a base station data collection interval of 2 seconds, which of the following would be an acceptable collection rate for a GPS receiver at a subordinate station?

(a) 1 sec

(b) 3 sec

(c) 4 sec

(d) 5 sec

(c) 4 sec

In an area where the geoid is considerably above the earth's surface, which of the following is probably true?

(a) the area has a significant deflection of the vertical

(b) the area is mountainous or on a high plateau

(c) the area is below sea level

(d) the ellipsoid is above the geoid

(c) the area is below sea level

Parallels, or lines of latitude, measure the arc distance

(a) east of west of the prime meridian

(b) westward from the prime meridian

(c) northerly and southerly from the equator to the poles

(d) northerly and southerly from the poles to the equator

(c) northerly and southerly from the equator to the poles

Meridians, or lines of longitude, measure the arc distance

(a) east and west of the prime meridian

(b) westward from the prime meridian

(c) northerly and southerly from the equator to the poles

(d) northerly and southerly from the poles to the equator

(a) east and west of the prime meridian

Which of the following is used in a Mercator projection?

(a) plane

(b) cone

(c) cylinder

(d) ellipse

(c) cylinder

Which of the following is used in a Lambert projection?

(a) plane

(b) cone

(c) cylinder

(d) ellipse

(b) cone

Which of the following is used in a Lambert conformal conic projection?

(a) parallel lines of longitude

(b) two cones

(c) parallel lines of latitude

(d) one cone that slices the earth at two parallels

(d) one cone that slices the earth at two parallels

The mapping angle in a Lambert projection varies with which of the following?

(a) longitude

(b) latitude

(c) latitude and longitude

(d) none of the above

(a) longitude

The mapping angle in a transverse Mercator projection varies with which of the following?

(a) longitude

(b) latitude

(c) latitude and longitude

(d) none of the above

(b) latitude

The scale factor in a Lambert projection varies with which of the following?

(a) longitude

(b) latitude

(c) latitude and longitude

(d) none of the above

(b) latitude

The scale factor in a transverse Mercator projection varies with which of the following?

(a) longitude

(b) latitude

(c) latitude and longitude

(d) none of the above

(a) longitude

The Statute of Frauds provides that

(a) ownership of land by private individuals is fraudulent

(b) a father may not pass title to his eldest son

(c) transfer of title to land must be in writing

(d) all of the above

(c) transfer of title to land must be in writing

Property is divided into which of the following classes?

(a) farmland and ranchland

(b) urban land and rural land

(c) real and personal

(d) none of the above

(c) real and personal

A title abstract

(a) a conveyance that transfers title

(b) a description of a piece of property

(c) a history of transfers of title in chronological order

(d) an insurance policy

(c) a history of transfers of title in chronological order

Meander to margin?

In land surveying, a meander line is a surveyed traverse used to map the general shape of a body of water. While it approximates the water's margin, it is not a legal property boundary. The true boundary is typically the dynamic edge of the water itself.

Quadrangle Definition

• A 24-mile square parcel used in the PLSS framework

• Contains 16 townships arranged in a 4×4 grid

Township Definition:

• 6 miles × 6 miles square area

• Contains 36 sections, each 1 mile × 1 mile

• Total area of 36 square miles (23,040 acres)

Relationship of township and quadrangle

• 4 townships × 4 townships = 1 quadrangle

• 16 townships fit within 1 quadrangle

Geographer of the United States

• Appointed to direct the national survey effort

• Position established in the Land Ordinance of 1785

Surveyor General

• Responsible for surveys in specific territories/regions • Reported to General Land Office

Territorial Surveyor

• Operated within specific territorial boundaries

• Coordinated survey activities in that territory

Deputy Surveyor

• Worked under contract, not as employees • Responsible for actual field surveys

• Typically operated as the compass operator on survey teams

Evolution of PLSS

• GLO established in 1812

• Transformed into Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in 1946

Principal Meridian:

• North-south line used as prime reference for PLSS surveys

• Each state or region typically has its own designated principal meridian

• Florida's Principal Meridian (Tallahassee Meridian) runs through the old territorial capitol

Guide Meridian:

• Secondary north-south reference lines

• Established at 24-mile intervals east and west of Principal Meridian

• Help control surveys across large areas

Base Line:

• East-west reference line that intersects the Principal Meridian

• Starting point for township numbering (north and south)

• Florida's Base Line runs east-west through Tallahassee

Standard Parallel North (Correction Line):

• East-west lines established at 24-mile intervals north and south of the Base Line

• Compensates for the convergence of meridians

• All township exteriors along standard parallels are standard corners

Convergence Issues:

• Meridians converge toward the poles due to Earth's curvature

• Causes townships to be narrower at their northern boundaries

• Rate of convergence: approximately 1.2 feet per mile at 45° latitude

Closing Corners:

• Established where survey lines intersect previously surveyed standard lines

• Not located on the line they are intended to close upon due to convergence

• Demonstrates the difference between theoretical and actual survey

Color or title is

(a) any written instrument that appears to convey title but in fact does not

(b) a claim on land that, if valid, would impair the title to the land but can be proven invalid

(c) an estate in real property

(d) all of the above

(a) any written instrument that appears to convey title but in fact does not

Act of May 10, 1800:

• Authorized subdivision of public lands into half-sections (320 acres)

• Required setting of quarter section corners on section lines

• Furthered the goal of making land available to settlers in smaller parcels

Tiffin's Instructions (1815):

• Written by Edward Tiffin, Surveyor General (1814-1829)

• Established uniform procedures for deputy surveyors

• Key elements:

o Required marking of bearing trees

o Specified methods for placing section corners

o Required detailed field notes

o Established systematic procedures for subdivision

Colonel Robert Butler:

• First Surveyor General of Florida (1824-1827)

• Established the Tallahassee Meridian and Base Line

• Initiated the first public surveys in Florida Territory

• Supervised initial contracts with deputy surveyors

The Seven Ranges:

• First area surveyed under the Land Ordinance of 1785

• Located in eastern Ohio

• Established the rectangular survey system prototype

• Significance: Proved the feasibility of the systematic rectangular survey system

• Survey began in 1785 under Thomas Hutchins, first Geographer of the United States

Chaps: Tree Marking

• Horizontal notches cut into trees

• Used primarily to mark boundary lines

• Depth typically 1/4 to 1/2 inch into the wood

Blazes:

• Vertical marks cut into trees by removing bark and some wood

• Typically 6-8 inches long, 2-4 inches wide

• Used to mark line trees and bearing trees

• Face of blaze typically oriented toward the corner

Hacks:

• Horizontal notches typically used in series

• Often grouped in specific patterns to denote different types of corners

• Example: Two hacks above and one hack below a blaze on a bearing tree

Line Trees:

• Trees directly intercepted by a section line

• Marked with two hacks or notches on each side of the tree, facing the line direction

• Field notes recorded species, diameter, and distance along the line

• No bearing or distance from the line was recorded (since tree is on the line)

Bearing Trees:

• Trees near corners used as reference points

• Marked with species-specific patterns:

o Section corners: One notch for each mile to township boundary south and east o Quarter section corners: No notches

• Facing the corner with inscriptions showing: o Section number(s) o Township and range o Date of survey

Protraction and Protracted Lines:

• Protraction: The planned layout of townships and sections on paper before field survey

• Protracted lines: Lines shown on official plats but not actually run in the field

Florida's Principal Meridian:

• Known as the Tallahassee Meridian

• Established in 1824

• Runs north-south through the old capitol building in Tallahassee

• Base line runs east-west through the same point

Quarter Corners:

• Set at half-mile points on section lines

• Divide sections into quarters (160 acres each)

• Marked with "¼" on the appropriate face

• Established in original surveys after 1800

Half Corners:

• Similar to quarter corners in function

• Particularly common in Florida and Alabama

• Often used interchangeably with quarter corner terminology

Sixteenth Corners (1/16):

• Located at quarter-quarter points

• Divide quarter sections into quarters (40 acres each)

• Not set in original surveys; established later as needed

• Located by equal subdivision between established corners

Closing Corners:

• Set where a survey line meets a previously surveyed line

• Not on the line it is intended to close upon (due to convergence)

• Often creates "jogs" in the PLSS framework • Monumented to show discrepancy between theoretical and actual position

Standard Corners:

• Set on standard parallels and principal meridian

• Considered more reliable than ordinary corners

• Used as control points for subsequent surveys

• Hold precedence over non-standard corners

Double Corners:

• Two corners in proximity marking the same theoretical position

• Result from independent surveys coming together

• Common at township boundaries

• Require special rules for determining which corner controls

Defective Lines:

• Lines with significant errors in bearing or distance

• Often discovered in subsequent surveys

• Treated according to specific rules in the Manual of Surveying Instructions

• Original corner positions still control despite errors in measurement

Nonius Compass of Rittenhouse Construction:

• Precision surveying compass developed by David Rittenhouse

• Featured a vernier scale (nonius) allowing readings to minutes of arc

• Included sights for alignment and a magnetic needle

• Used extensively in early PLSS surveys

• Allowed for correction of magnetic declination

Chaining Pins:

• Metal pins used to mark measured distances along survey lines

• Typically, 11 pins carried by the front chainman

Jacob Staff:

• Wooden pole with pointed metal tip for supporting the compass

• Typically, 4-5 feet tall • Used to stabilize the compass during sightings

• Used by compass operator (typically the Deputy Surveyor)

Modern Range Rod:

• Modern equivalent used for sighting alignments

• Typically, aluminum with red and white alternating sections

• Often incorporates prisms for EDM measurements

• Used by survey crew to establish line of sight

Other Historical Equipment:

• Gunter's Chain: 66 feet long with 100 links

• Solar Compass: Used to determine true north using the sun

• Transit: Replaced compass for more precise angle measurements

• Two-pole Chain: 33 feet long, used in certain surveys

Error Location within Townships:

• North and west boundaries typically contain most accumulated errors

• Reason: Townships were typically surveyed from south to east, accumulating error northward and westward

Effects on Section 6:

• Section 6 is the most irregular section in a township

• Located in the northwest corner where errors accumulate

• May deviate significantly from the standard 640 acres

• Affected by both north-south and east-west accumulated errors

Irregular Distances:

• North boundary: Distance from standard corner to closing corner may differ from 6 miles

• West boundary: Similar irregularities due to convergence and accumulated errors

• These boundaries have irregular quarter-section corners placed at midpoint of actual line, not at theoretical 40 chains

Error Placement within Sections:

• North and west half-miles of sections bear the irregularity

• Quarter corners on north and west boundaries of sections are placed at midpoint of actual line

• Interior of township (sections 2-5, 8-11, 14-17, 20-23, 26-29, 32-35) more regular

• Exterior sections absorb most of the error

Gunter's Chain Relationships:

• 1 mile = 80 chains

• ½ mile = 40 chains

• ¼ mile = 20 chains

• 1 chain = 66 feet = 100 links

• 1 link = 7.92 inches

Gunther Chain Area

• 1 square mile = 640 acres

• 1 acre = 10 square chains

• Quarter section = 160 acres

• Quarter-quarter section = 40 acres

Significance of 40 Acres:

• The "40 acres and a mule" phrase originated after the Civil War

• Referred to the promised (but largely unfulfilled) land redistribution to freed slaves

• 40 acres represented a quarter-quarter section, the smallest commonly surveyed unit

• Considered the minimum economically viable farm size for family subsistence

660 Feet in Surveys:

• Equals 10 chains

• Quarter-quarter section lines are typically 660 feet apart

• Common dimension in property surveys derived from PLSS

• Often seen as property boundary dimensions

2-Pole Chain:

• Length: 33 feet (half of a Gunter's Chain)

• 1 pole (rod, perch) = 16.5 feet

• Used in Florida PLSS surveys because:

o Easier to handle in dense vegetation

o More manageable in swampy terrain

o Less prone to sagging errors over short distances

Furlong:

• 1 furlong = 10 chains = 660 feet

• Originally an agricultural measure (length of furrow)

• 8 furlongs = 1 mile

Conversion Table:

• 1 chain = 66 feet = 4 rods = 100 links

• 1 mile = 80 chains = 5,280 feet = 320 rods

• 1 acre = 10 square chains = 43,560 square feet

• 1 section = 640 acres = 1 square mile

Meander Lines:

• Survey lines run along the margins of substantial bodies of water

• Not property boundaries but survey lines approximating the shoreline

• Purpose: To ascertain the quantity of land within fractional sections

• Follow the general contour at ordinary high water mark

• Typically run from meander corner to meander corner

Government Lots:

• Fractional parcels of land within sections that:

o Border water bodies

o Are affected by irregular boundaries

o Contain less than a standard subdivision (40 acres)

• Created when sections are interrupted by:

o Lakes o Rivers o Reservation boundaries

o Previously surveyed private claims

Lot Numbering Systems:

• Generally numbered consecutively within each section

• Numbering typically begins in northeast corner of section

• Proceeds west then south (similar to section numbering)

• Exceptions exist in older surveys

Section Numbering System:

• Begins at northeast corner of township (Section 1)

• Proceeds west to Section 6

• Then eastward on second tier (Sections 7-12)

• Continues in this alternating pattern • Ends at southeast corner (Section 36)

Range Lines:

• Run north-south

• Located at 6-mile intervals east and west of Principal Meridian

• Define east-west boundaries of townships

• Numbered east or west from Principal Meridian (e.g., R1E, R2E, R1W, R2W)

• In Florida: Range Line Road is State Road 7/US 441 in South Florida

Township Lines:

• Run east-west

• Located at 6-mile intervals north and south of Base Line

• Define north-south boundaries of townships

• Numbered north or south from Base Line (e.g., T1N, T2N, T1S, T2S)

• In Florida: Numbering starts at the Base Line in Tallahassee

Jogs and Closing Corners:

• Jogs occur where range lines meet standard parallels due to convergence

• Size of jog increases with distance from Principal Meridian

• Jog Road in Palm Beach County: Named for the offset in the PLSS grid

• Closing corners mark where survey lines intersect previously established lines

Township vs. Township Line Distinctions:

• Township (as area): 6×6 mile square containing 36 sections

• Township line: East-west boundary line between townships

• Township (as designation): Location descriptor (e.g., "Township 2 South")

Florida Township Examples:

• Palm Beach County: Primarily in T41S to T47S, R39E to R43E • Miami-Dade County: Primarily in T52S to T58S, R37E to R42E • Broward County: Primarily in T48S to T51S, R39E to R42E

Broward County Section Maps:

• Specialized maps showing detailed section breakdowns

• Include government lots, subdivisions, and rights-of-way

• Important reference for surveyors working in the county

Florida's PLSS Framework:

• Principal Meridian: Tallahassee Meridian (established 1824)

• Base Line: Runs east-west through Tallahassee

• Townships numbered south from Base Line (predominantly T1S to T67S)

• Ranges numbered east and west from Tallahassee Meridian (predominantly R1E to R43E)

County Township Locations:

• Palm Beach County: T41S to T47S, R39E to R43E

• Broward County: T48S to T51S, R39E to R42E

• Miami-Dade County: T52S to T58S, R37E to R42E

Broward County Section Maps:

• Official county maps showing section subdivisions

• Include: o Government lots

o Subdivision boundaries

o Streets and rights-of-way

o Waterways and canals

o Control points

• Important reference for property surveys in Broward County

• Available through County Surveyor's office

Wood Posts in Florida Surveys:

• Typically cypress or pine

• Used due to abundance and rot resistance

• Common section corner marker in original surveys

• Often completely deteriorated in modern times

• Descriptions in field notes help locate original positions

Unique Aspects of Florida PLSS:

• Extensive use of half-mile posts (quarter corners

• Many meander lines due to abundant water bodies

• Numerous government lots around lakes and coastal areas

• Survey challenges in Everglades and swamp areas

• Use of 2-pole chain in difficult terrain

Spanish Land Grant Definition

• Land grants issued by Spanish government during Spanish colonial period (1513-1821)

• Predated U.S. acquisition of Florida

• Often irregular in shape, following natural features

• Not conforming to the rectangular PLSS system