State and Local terms Finalacc

accreditation

a certification process in which outside experts visit a school or college to evaluate whether it is meeting minimum quality standards

adaptation

taking steps to prepare for and deal with the effects of climate change

ad hoc federalism

the process of choosing a state centered or nation centered view of federalism on the basis of political or partisan convenience

alternative dispute resolution (ADR)

a way to end a disagreement by means other than litigation, it usually involves the appointment of a mediator to preside over a meeting between the parties

appeal

a request to have a lower court's decision in a case reviewed by a higher court

at large elections

elections in which city or county voters vote for council or commission members from any part of the jurisdiction

block grants

federal grants in aid given for general policy areas that leave states and localities with wide discretion over hot to spend the money within the designated policy area

bully pulpit

the platform from which a high profile public official, such as governor or president, commands considerable public and media attention by virtue of holding office

cap and trade

a system for limiting pollution by assigning allowances to polluters, who can sell their excess permits if they succeed in reducing their emissions

casework

the work undertaken by legislators and their staffs in response to requests for help from constituents

categorical grants

federal grants in aid given for specific program that leave states and localities with little discretion over how to spend the money

centralized federalism

the notion that the federal government should take the leading role in setting national policy, with state and local governments helping implement the policies

charter

a document that outlines the powers, organization, and responsibilities of a local government

charter schools

public schools, often with unique themes, managed by teachers, principals, social workers, or nonprofit groups, the charter school movement was launched in the early 1990s

city commission system

a form of municipal governance in which executive, legislative, and administrative powers are vested in elected city commissioners

city manager

an official appointed to be the chief administrator of a municipality

commission administrator system

a form of county governance in which executive and legislative powers reside with an elected commission, which hires a professional executive to manage day to day operations of government

Common core state standards

an education initiative that has created a uniform set of learning expectations in english and math for students at the end of each grade. Participation is voluntary, but at least initially most states joined this initiative, a number of states have since rolled back or repealed their participation

common law

law composed of judges' legal opinions that reflects community practices and evolves over time

comparative method

a learning approach based on studying the differences and similarities among similar units of analysis (such as states)

confederacy

a voluntary association of independent, sovereign states or governments

constituent service

the work done by legislators to help residents in their voting districts

cooperative federalism

the notion that it is impossible for state and national governments to have separate and distinct jurisdictions and that both levels of government must work together

council executive system

a form of county governance in which legislative powers are vested in a county commission and executive powers are vested in an independently elected executive

council manager system

a form of municipal governance in which the day to day administration of government is carried out by a professional administrator

county commission system

a form of governance in which executive, legislative, and administrative powers are vested in elected commissioners

crosscutting requirements

constraints that apply to all federal grants

crossover sanctions

federal requirements mandating that grant recipients pass and enforce certain laws or regulations as a condition of receiving funds

delegates

legislators who primarily see their role as voting according to their constituents' beliefs as they understand them

determinate sentencing

the sentencing of an offender, by a judge, to a specific amount of time in prison depending on the crime

deterrence theory

a theory advanced by criminologists that harsh penalties will deter people from committing crimes

devolution

the process of taking power and responsibility away from the federal government and giving it to state and local governments

dilion's rule

the legal principles that says local governments can exercise only the powers granted to them by state government

discretionary spending

spending controlled in annual appropriations acts

dual federalism

the idea that state and federal governments have separate and distinct jurisdictions and responsibilities

en banc

appeals court sessions in which all the judges hear a case together

entitlement program

a government run program that guarantees unlimited assistance to those who meet its eligibility requirements, no matter how high the cost

excise taxes

taxes on alcohol, tobacco, and other similar products that are designed to raise revenues and reduce use

exclusive powers

powers given by the Constitution solely to the federal government

fiscal federalism

the system by which federal grants are used to fund programs and services provided by state and local governments

fracking

a process in which water, sand, and chemicals are pumped into the ground to enable the extraction of natural gas and oil

general act charters

charters that grant power, such as home rule to all municipal governments within a state

gerrymanders

districts clearly drawn with the intent of pressing partisan advantage at the expense of other considerations

grants in aid

cash appropriations given by the federal government to the states

high stakes standardized testing

testing of elementary and secondary students in which poor results can mean either that students fail to be promoted or that the school loses its accreditation

home rule

the right of a locality to self government, usually granted through a charter

homeschooling

the education of children in the home; a movement to grant waivers from state truancy laws to permit parents to teach their own children

indeterminate sentencing

the sentencing of an offender, by a judge, to a minimum and a maximum amount of time in prison, with a parole board deciding how long the offender actually remains in prison

individualistic culture

a political culture that views politics and government as just another way to achieve individual goals

intergovernmental transfers

funds provided by the federal government to state governments and by state governments to local governments

interstate commerce clause

constitutional clause that gives Congress the right to regulate interstate commerce, this clause has been broadly interpreted to give Congress a number of implied powers

judicial federalism

the idea that the courts determine the boundaries of state and federal relations

jury nullification

a jury's returning a verdict of "not guilty" even though jurists believe the defendant is guilty. By doing so, the jury cancels out the effect of a law that the jurors believe is immoral or was wrongly applied to the defendant

laboratories of democracy

a metaphor that emphasizes the states' ability to engage in different policy experiments without interference from the federal government

line item veto

the power to reject a portion of a bill while leaving the rest intact

logrolling

a practice in which a legislator gives a colleague a vote on a particular bill in return for that colleague's vote on another bill

malapportionment

a situation in which the principle of equal representation is violated

majority minority districts

districts in which members of a minority group, such as African Americans or Hispanics, make up a majority of the population or electorate

mandatory minimum sentences

the shortest sentences offenders may receive upon conviction for certain offenses, the court has no authority to impose shorter sentences.

mass incarcerations

the phrase used to describe the United States strikingly high rate of imprisonment

mayor council system

a form of municipal governance in which there is an elected executive and an elected legislature

medicaid

a joint state and federal health insurance program that serves low income individuals and children, older people, and people with disabilities

medicare

the federal health insurance program for older citizens

merit selection

a hybrid of appointment and election that typically involves a bipartisan judicial nominating commission whose job is to create a list of highly qualified candidates for the bench from which the governor or legislature appoints judges. After serving a term, these judges are typically evaluated for retention either by the same commission or through uncontested popular elections

mitigation

reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases and other steps taken to curb the forces that cause climate change

moralistic culture

a political culture that views politics and government as the means to achieve the collective good

municipal bonds

bonds issued by the states, counties, cities, and towns to fund large projects as well as operating budgets. Income from such bonds is exempt from federal taxes and from state and local taxes for the investors who live in the state where they are issued

municipalities

political jurisdictions, such as cities, villages, or towns incorporated under state law to provide governance to defined geographical areas; more compact and more densely populated than counties

nation centered federalism

the belief that the nation is the basis of the federal system and that the federal government should take precedence over state governments

new federalism

the belief that states should receive more power and authority and less money from the federal government

no child left behind act

federal law enacted in January 2002 that introduced new accountability measures for elementary and secondary schools in all states receiving federal education aid

nonpartisan elections

an election in which the candidates do not have to declare party affiliation or receive a party's nomination; local offices and elections are often nonpartisan

nullification

the process of a state's rejecting a federal law and making it invalid within state borders

oversight

the legislature's role in making sure that the governor and executive branch agencies are properly implementing the laws

parole

supervised early release from prison

plea bargain

an agreement in which the accused in a criminal case admits guilt, usually in exchange for a promise that a particular sentence will be imposed

plenary power

power that is not limited or constrained

plural executive system

a state government system in which the governor is not the dominant figure in the executive branch but, instead, is more of a first among equals, a serving alongside numerous other officials who were elected to their offices rather than appointed by the governor

plurality

the highest number of votes garnered by any of the candidates for a particular office but short of an outright majority

political culture

the attitudes and beliefs broadly shared in a polity about the role and responsibility of government

precedent

in law, the use of the past to determine current interpretation and decision making

probation

supervised punishment in the community

professionalized legislatures

the process of providing legislators with the resources they need to make politics their main career, such as making their positions full time or providing them with full time staff

professional model of policing

an approach to policing that emphasizes professional relations with citizens, police, independence, police in cars and rapid responses to calls for service

progressive tax system

a system of taxation in which the rate paid reflects ability to pay

recall election

a special election allowing voters to remove an elected official from office before the end of their term

racial profiling

the alleged police practice of targeting minorities when enforcing the law

recall

a way for voters to oust an incumbent politician prior to the next regularly scheduled election; they collect signatures to qualify the recall proposal for the ballot and then vote on the ouster of the politician

recidivism

relapse into criminal behavior that generally refers to former inmates returning to jail or prison

redistricting

the drawing of new boundaries for congressional and state legislative districts usually following a decennial census

referendums

procedures that allow the electorate to accept or reject a law passed by the legislature

regressive taxes

taxes levied on all taxpayers regardless of income or ability to pay, placing proportionately more of a burden on those with lower incomes

resilience

like adaptation, a term borrowed from biology to describe efforts to prepare for effects of climate change

retention elections

an election in which a judge runs uncontested and voters are asked to vote yes or no on the question of whether they wish to retain the judge in office for another term

riders

amendments to a bill that are not central to the bill's intent

rocket docket

court schedule that fast tracks cases that often have limited, specific deadlines for specific court procedures

sales taxes

taxes levied by state and local governments on purchases

school boards

elected or appointed bodies that determine major policies and budgets for school districts

school districts

local administrative jurisdictions that hire staff and report to school boards on the management of area public schools

school voucher movement

a movement, dating back to the 1950s, to allow taxpayers dollars to be given to families for use at whatever public, private, or parochial schools they choose