Elizabethan England - c.1568-1603

fate of E’s mother: Anne Boleyn

fate of E’s mother: Anne Boleyn

failed to give Henry VIII a son, so was beheaded when E was 2 years old

why did Henry VIII set up the Church of England?

• Pope refused to grant Henry the divorce he needed

• broke from Rome, making himself the Supreme head of the Church of England

birth of Prince Edward

• 1537

• Henry had a male heir → E was no longer called Princess; now called Lady

education

• very well educated

• read ancient Greek + liked listening to music

• taught public speaking → uncommon for women

• by 14 → became fluent in French, Latin, Italian + Spanish

Catherine Parr

• Henry’s 6th wife

• acted like a mother figure towards E

• influenced E’s Protestant beliefs

Thomas Seymour

• married E’s stepmother, Catherine Parr

• flirted w/ E despite being 3x her age → wanted to marry her for more power

• cut up a dress she was wearing + burst into her bedroom

• accused of treason + executed in 1549 → E managed to convince investigators of her innocence

  • taught her to keep her distance + trust nobody

  • contributed to her wariness of men + ability to manipulate them

her sister: Mary Tudor (bloody Mary)

• hated E bc of her youth + beauty, her Protestant faith (Mary was Catholic) + E’s mother for displacing her own mother

• burned 300 Protestant heretics

• was 37 + still unmarried → swiftly negotiated a marriage to Philip of Spain → provoked Wyatt Rebellion

Wyatt Rebellion

• 1000s rebels marched into London, thinking Spain was taking over, but rebellion quickly collapsed

• E was suspected of working w/ rebels → imprisoned in the Tower of London

• Wyatt claimed E had approved of the rebellion but later retracted that statement

• E was eventually released after no evidence could be found against her

  • however was kept under house arrest

• made E careful about introducing policies that may be unpopular

when was Elizabeth crowned Queen?

15th Jan 1559 after the death of Mary Tudor

how did Elizabeth’s early life shape her personality?

• was nearly executed twice → miraculous survival strengthened her character + moulded her into the cautious, clever + courageous Queen she became

Royal Court

• mobile operation → not confined to a building → located wherever the Queen was

• ~ 500 nobles, advisors, officials + servants (called courtiers) → competed for power + influence

• employed highly corrupt system of patronage

• went on progresses

progresses

• would travel w/ Court most summers on progresses → visiting houses of nobility

• allowed E to be seen by her subjects regularly, to build a relationship w/ them + to flatter them

• allowed E to live at the expense of her subjects after Mary’s 500k debt she left

• removed her from the sweltering capital at times of plague

• BUT never visited SW or N of country → Catholics

performance

• Court’s lavish banquets, elaborate masques + performances served at subtle propaganda → glorified E’s image

  • use of portraits to emphasise her wealth + power → towards end of reign, used heavy makeup to cover signs of ageing

• well rehearsed + designed to impress → E understood the importance of performance

• BUT many people could not afford portraits

patronage

• favouritism to men by giving them particular jobs/monopolies → managed v carefully

• jobs highly sought after as they bought prestige + wealth

• highly corrupt but v effective → caused intense competition between rivalries

  • suited E → made everyone loyal to her

• BUT end of her reign, use of patronage caused problems

  • 1601 Essex Rebellion → Earl of Essex attempted to rebel after E stripped him of his privileges (monopoly on sweet wines) + influence

  • some nobles felt they were being treated worse/unfairly

privy council

• largely gentry, highly efficient + educated politicians

• met daily → advise + direct her, but E not obliged to take their advice

• skilful at guiding parliamentary business

• divide + rule → men compete for her attention, balanced advice from opposing views → measured decisions

• careful not to appoint Catholics + dismissed Catholic PCs from Mary → replaced them w/ Protestants + Puritans

• BUT E did not attend many meetings + was very dependent on them

key ministers

• Willian Cecil

• Francis Walsingham

• Robert Dudley

• Christopher Hatton

• Robert Devereux

Sir William Cecil, Lord Burghley

• moderate Protestant

• intelligent, hard-working, cautious

• secretary of state (leader of the PC) twice

• E’s most influential advisor, whom she relied on for 40+ years

• argued w/ Dudley

Sir Francis Walsingham

• strong Puritan

• excellent organiser

• had been secretary of state once + an MP

• skilled in managing relations w/ foreign countries + overseeing network of spies that uncovered plots against E

• ally of Dudley, clashed w/ Cecil

Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester

• radical Puritan

• dashing, ambitious, hard-working, rumoured to be E’s lover

• Master of the Horse - personally responsible for E’s safety

• was E’s fav + accompanied her most of the time

• clashed w/ Cecil, ally of Walsingham

Sir Christopher Hatton

• moderate Protestant, hated Puritans, sympathised w/ Catholics

• loyal, clever, hard-working, dashing

• Capt. of the Queen’s Bodyguard + Lord Chancellor (in charge of judges + courts)

• responsible for organising progresses

• good relations w/ others → E relied on him to persuade MPs to pass laws + taxes

Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex

• Puritan, but religion was a small part of his life

• young, good-looking, a fav of E’s, also arrogant + short-tempered

• military hero w/ experience of fighting abroad

• had influence over voyages

• new rivalry formed w/ Robert Cecil, son of William Cecil

Parliament

• owed position to E → independence restricted → met 13 times in 45 year reign

• needed to pass laws + taxes

• regarded as an inconvenient necessity

• E’s financial problems meant she had to rely on them heavily to pass taxes

Parliament problems

• later on, MPs became more confident in arguing against Queen about her marital status, religion + trading monopolies

• 1576 → MP Peter Wentworth imprisoned for arguing for freedom of speech

• HOWEVER, E made use of her powers to limit the influence of Parliament

  • used speeches to charm + bully → ‘Golden Speech’ to flatter Parliament

  • had the right to block measures proposed by MPs using the royal veto

  • imposed limits on their freedom of speech

problems facing female rulers

• marriage + succession

• prejudice against women in a ‘man’s world’

  • fear of chaos + weakness

  • Henry VIII wanted a male heir so bad that he married 6 times

  • 1558, E’s year of accession, Scottish Protestant John Knox wrote a book attacking female rulers → E found the work insulting + identified Knox as a political enemy even though he could’ve been a religious ally

pressures on Elizabeth to marry + name an heir

• pressured by Privy Council especially after she caught smallpox in 1562 and nearly died

• pressured by Parliament → lost her temper in 1566 and banned them from talking about it

• indirect pressure from Mary, QoS as she had a strong claim to the throne

possible suitors

• Philip II, King of Spain

  • richest + most powerful in Europe, Catholic

  • not seriously considered → treated Mary Tudor poorly, their marriage caused a rebellion

• Prince Eric of Sweden

  • would go onto be King, Protestant

  • Sweden not a strong alliance for England

• Robert Dudley

  • childhood friend of E, Puritan

  • was already married, and when his wife mysteriously died, them getting married would’ve been scandalous

• Duke on Alencon

  • young brother of King of France, Catholic

  • St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572, 1000s of Protestants in France murdered → French unpopular in England

benefits of not marrying

• independence → if she got married, would have to share power + he may try to become King

• religion → most suitors Catholic, she is Protestant

• propaganda ‘Virgin Queen’ cult → married to her country

• manipulating men → can charm them into getting what she wants

  • unclear as to whether she was actually serious about any of their proposals or is she simply played out the negotiations as a diplomatic game

drawbacks of not marrying

• caused tension between her and her PCs

• led her to lose her temper in 1566 w/ Parliament

• left her succession doubtful

• encouraged Catholic plots that hoped to place Mary, QoS on the throne

resolution

• when E died, the Tudor Dynasty came to an end → gave way to the Stuarts

• E’s council planned for the succession of her Scottish cousin

Essex Rebellion 1601 causes

• rivalry between Robert Cecil + Devereux

• angered E by secretly getting married w/o her permission

• when she refused to promote one of his supporters, he lost his temper + insulted her: ‘her conditions are as crooked as her carcass’ → she punched him and he almost drew his sword on her

  • banished from court after this

Essex Rebellion 1601 causes pt2

• when E asked him to defeat a rebellion in Ireland in 1598, he made peace instead

• while he was away fighting, E promoted Cecil → sparked by jealousy, he burst into her bedchambers before she was wigged + gowned → placed under house arrest, lost his job + monopoly on sweet wines

Essex Rebellion 1601

• Essex gathered 300 supporters + locked up 4 PCs as hostage as they went to question him

• underestimated E + the govt. + overestimated himself

• most of his supporters deserted him → rebellion lasted 12 hours

• executed on 25th Feb 1601

what did the Essex Rebellion show about Elizabeth’s authority?

• her losing her authority

  • rebellion by one of her favourites

  • took her PCs hostage

  • end of her reign → losing her closest PCs

• her keeping her authority

  • firm response to unacceptable acts → prepared to have on of her favourites executed

golden age

blossoming of culture - theatre, art, architecture, music etc

an English Renaissance

• Elizabethan era saw an explosion of cultural achievement → influence by Europe

• rise of the gentry

• invention of the printing press also made it possible for ideas to be spread

• affordable books → ‘chap books’ sold

causes of the rise of the gentry

• the Tudors’ distrusted old noble families → they had fought against them in the Wars of the Roses → left a space that the gentry filled

• gentry families made money by buying cheap land after the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII in the 1530s

• population growth

• exploration = new trading + increasing wealth

• rack-renting

• enclosure

fashion

• expensive clothes bought by the wealthy

• availability of new materials + dyes from exploration

  • lead based makeup to show off wealth → white faced = don’t have to work in the sun

• sumptuary laws 1574 → controlled the clothes people were allowed to wear depending on their social rank

• female fashions

  • ruffs, gown, dyed hair w/ false hair on top, heavy white makeup

  • blackened teeth → made popular by E whose teeth were black from sugar consumption

• male fashions

  • hat, cloak, sword, ruff, jerkin (velvet jacket)

architecture

• period called the ‘Great Rebuilding’ → extravagant country houses built to reflect wealth + stability

• houses built to impress E while on progresses

• rising food prices = increased profits for landowners → houses that used latest style were a status symbol

• heavily influenced by Italian Renaissance

  • focus on symmetry + size

  • intricate chimney stacks + $$$ leaded glass in large mullioned windows

  • often built w/ an ‘E’ shaped floorplan, maybe to honour E

• rooms now v light from windows

• houses more comfortable than b4

theatre

• before, actors considered to be vagabonds → govt. suspicion → led to law in 1572, all actors had to be licensed → encouraged companies to organise themselves → first theatre in 1576

• tickets cheap, so accessible to many → 1/3 Londoners visiting theatre/month

theatre as an indicator of wider society

• Lords’ rooms → most $$$ seats

• pit yard → groundlings → heckling, pushing, throwing objects

  • emphasis on great chain of being + sumptuary laws

• plays were censored + had subtle propaganda for E → cult of personality

• fear of disease + crowds → outbreaks of plague led to Lord Mayor banning plays in London → theatres built on the outskirts of London

  • caused harsh treatment of vagrant beggars

  • fear of disease high → bubonic plague killed 17,000 in London

theatre as an indicator of wider society pt2

• Puritan influence → viewed plays as immoral → influenced the location → theatres set up in places such as Southwark, with other morally dubious forms of entertainment e.g. bear-baiting, taverns + brothels

  • showed Puritan influence in Parliament + PC (Dudley, Walsingham)

  • Puritan criticism of E’s rel.sel. → shown also by prophesying + pamphlets

• plays changed from being based on Bible → tragedies + comedies

  • showed greater lvl of education among audience from Renaissance

• patronage

  • London’s population increasing → by providing entertainment, theatre could distract the poor from their problems → rebellion less likely

  • plays could improve peoples’ thoughts about E → E exploited this

    • some companies won funding + protection + some companies patronised

reasons for increasing poverty

• increasing population → by 43% → food prices increase

• poor harvests

• war → more taxes

• inflation → Henry VIII debased coinage to help pay for his wars

• dissolution of monasteries → monasteries closed in 1530s by Henry VIII → employed + housed many → people flocked to towns

• enclosure → rise of gentry, many farmers tried to seek profits by enclosing land w/ hedges → unemployment + removed common land which poor people used for farming

• rack-renting → landowners increased rent on land → evicted those who couldn’t pay

attitudes towards the poor

• ‘deserving poor’ → govt. sympathetic towards them

• ‘idle poor’ → threat to social order → vagabonds → were hated

  • Thomas Harman in 1567, wrote a book giving advice to warn people about how beggars cheat people out of money

• Puritans viewed this lifestyle as sinful → govt. worried abt rebellion

• poor seen as a problem contributing to disease → outbreaks of plague

responses to poverty

• E carried out full recoinage → slowed inflation after debasement

• locally, alms were collected for the poor + work provided for the unemployed in workhouses

  • hospitals in London set up e.g. St Bartholomew’s for the sick + St Thomas’ for elderly

1572 Vagabonds Act

• vagabonds over the age of 14 were whipped + burned through the ear, repeat offenders → executed

• Local Justices of Peace (JPs) kept register of poor people in parish → raised poor rate

• children of convicted beggars placed in domestic service jobs

1576 Act for the Relief of the Poor

• JPs had to find work for able-bodies ‘idle poor’

• JPs had to build Houses of Correction (prisons) → for those who refused to work

1597 Poor Law, amended in 1601

• forced everyone to pay a local poor rate, fines or imprisonments for those who refused

• each parish had ‘Overseers of the Poor’ responsible for:

  • making sure parish had almshouses → old, ill + disabled could live + get outdoor relief (money, food + clothing )

• beggars whipped, imprisoned, forced to join Navy or hanged if they were persistent

were the poor laws successful?

• 1601 Poor Law lasted for 200 yrs

• first time that a govt. of England took responsibility for the welfare of its people

• filled gaps left after dissolution of monasteries

• HOWEVER, E’s decision to establish these laws were not selfless → clever political move → no more rebellions caused by poverty during E’s reign → preserved social order

  • also, Poor Law dealt w/ symptoms of poverty more than causes → many argue that it was too harsh against beggars who had no choice

trade with east

• high demand for luxury goods from the east, including spices, silk, incense + cotton, however transport took very long

• trade made more difficult by Muslim Ottoman empire, who were hostile to Christian Europe + could block off trade between the East + Europe

• therefore, Europe wanted a new route to the East w/o having to travel though Ottoman lands

John Hawkins

• older cousin of Francis Drake

• successful as a trader + privateer, raiding Spanish ports + ships

• 1562 - became involved in the slave trade, capturing slaves from Portuguese ships + exchanging them for leather, sugar, ginger + pearls

• 1564 - Hawkins took larger fleet to raid West African coast, captured 400 African people to sell to Spanish

  • Spanish knew this was illegal but Hawkins would sometimes threaten violence if they did not buy

John Hawkins pt2

• captured ~1300 slaves between 1562 and 1567

• believed to be responsible for introducing tobacco in England

• 1568 - lost men and ships after clash w/ Spanish → focused on redesigning ships for the Royal Navy to build strength

  • important in helping the defeat of Spain in Armada

• important in royal court + worked as an undercover spy for Ridolfi Plot

Sir Francis Drake

• by far the most famous English explorer + privateer

• sought personal glory + patriotism

• hated Catholic Spain (he was a Puritan) + for their attack on Hawkins (1568 San Juan de Ulua)

• 1572 - Nombre De Dios → captured £40,000 worth of Spanish silver → Spaniards referred to him as ‘El Draque’ (the dragon)

• set sail again in 1577 → unclear of his intentions, returned 3 yrs later + had circumnavigated the globe → returned w/ £400,000 (£200 million in today’s money) → E received half

Sir Walter Raleigh

• received a royal patent from E to establish a colony

• named an area of North America ‘Virginia’ → in honour of E, ‘virgin queen’ → believed that this area had large supplies of oil, wine, sugar + flax

  • hoped that gaining control of resources would reduce dependency on Europe

  • seen as a way of solving poverty crisis

• HOWEVER, both attempts of colonisation failed:

  • first settlers faced food shortages → had to return home

  • second set disappeared

• 1595 - set out to find mythical gold ‘El Dorado’ in South America

• although he helped to establish idea of setting up colony, was not until 4 years after E’s death that the first colony was established

how did exploration affect England?

SHORT TERM:

• merchants + nobles who sponsored voyages became wealthy

• Drake’s treasures helped to pay off debts facing monarchy since reign of Henry VIII

• glory + riches → propaganda for E as powerful Queen whose gender did not stop her from leading England to be a powerful nation

• raiding worsened relationship w/ Spain → may have contributed to war BUT not the tipping point

how did exploration affect England? pt2

LONG TERM

• helped to set up Britain as an international imperial + trading power

• Muscovy Company + Levant Company

• most famously → EIC in 1600 (trade in spices, silk + cotton) → became so powerful by 1800s that it formed the basis of Britain’s takeover of India

• even though Raleigh’s attempts failed during E’s lifetime, but 4 years after death, first British colony set up → would grow into British Empire which came to cover ¼ of the world

• Hawkins’ work modernising the English navy → dominated seas until C20th

the Religious Settlement

• 1559, aimed to heal divisions between Catholics and Protestants before they led to unrest and civil war

Act of Supremacy 1559

• established break from Catholic Rome → England became fully Protestant again

• as a compromise, E chose the title: Supreme Governor rather than Supreme Head which was used by her father + brother

  • hoped this would pacify Catholics who still regarded the Pope as the ‘head’

• all clergy + royal officials had to swear an oath of allegiance to her

• Bishops given the job of running the Church

Act of Uniformity, 1559

• aimed to end quarrel bet. Catholics + Protestants by making clear what the Anglican Church believed in

• new English Protestant prayer book put in all Churches → clergy had to take an oath promising to use new prayer book

• all services + Bible in English

• bread + wine still taken → meaning left ambiguous

• some ornaments + decorations allowed

• Priests wore quite fine vestments → allowed to marry

• everyone had to attend Church on Sunday or face paying 1 shilling fine → BUT E turned a blind eye if fines were not collected

why was there Puritan opposition?

• they did not like E’s rel.sel. → were dissatisfied w/ the compromise → thought that the Roman Catholic Church was corrupt + too many of its traditions were based on superstition

• found the compromise offensive → disliked continued existence of bishops + vestments

• became a problem from the 1570s

puritan opposition

• 1570 - Thomas Cartwright lectured at Cambridge saying there should be no hierarchy in the Church → included abolishing bishops + E not being Supreme Governor → threat to her authority

• 1572 - Puritan printing presses published pamphlets criticising the structure + beliefs E’s rel.sel had set up → presses destroyed + author John Field imprisoned

• 1570s - Puritan meetings known as prophesyings became popular → Puritan ministers would meet to discuss religion → would oft. end up criticising E → E banned these, when Archbishop of Canterbury, Edmund Grindal, refused, he was held under house arrest for 7 yrs

puritan opposition pt2

• 1583 - Grindal replaced by John Whitgift → rules passes in support of E = acceptance of rules + her hierarchy

• Puritan John Stubbs wrote pamphlet criticising E → hand cut off (lol)

• most Puritans conformed to Whitgift’s rules → persuaded by harsher punishments + less support after deaths of powerful Puritans, Dudley (1588) + Walsingham (1590)

Mary, QoS arrival to England, 1568

• Elizabeth’s Scottish, Catholic cousin

• E suggested that M marries Dudley - M married her own cousin (ew) Lord Darnley → stronger claim to the throne

• Darnley murdered 2 yrs later → suspected that M played a role in his murder → suspicions grew as she took a 3rd husband Earl Bothwell

  • suspected that he arranged Lord Darnley’s murder → civil war broke out in Scotland → M forced to abdicate → fled to England → unwelcome news to E

why was Mary, QoS are huge threat?

• people in England who questioned E’s legitimacy thought that M was the rightful queen of England → powers Catholic opposition → E chose to keep M under house arrest to limit threat

Northern Rebellion, 1569

• M’s arrival in England triggered a Catholic rebellion

• Duke of Norfolk was E’s cousin + the most powerful noble in England + a Catholic sympathiser → looking for an opportunity to increase his power as E had not given him an important role

  • found allies on The Catholic Earl of Northumberland + Earl of Westmoreland → both of their powers had been reduced and given to others by E

• Duke of Norfolk planned to marry M to strengthen the power of both of them

• no plan to remove E, but would strengthen M’s position for succeeding E

• rumours of a rebellion in north by Northumberland + Westmoreland which the Spanish ambassador had promised to send troops + support

Northern Rebellion, 1569 pt2

• E found out about the marriage plan + forbade it → called earls to her court but this pushed them into action

• 5000 northern supporters marched south w/ Northumberland + Westmoreland → captured Durham + illegally held mass in Durham Cathedral, captured Hartlepool + waited for help from Spain to arrive

• help never arrived (lol) as Spain were not keen on pro-French M

• earls lacked organisation → never reached south, most northern Catholics did not support rebellion (Pope had not yet excommunicated E) + the 5000 supporters had no coherent strategy → defeated by a force of 10000 loyal to E + earls fled

consequences of Northern Rebellion

• E strengthened control by reorganising the Council in the north + confiscating the lands of the rebels → no further rebellions happened in the tears afterwards but plots + threats continued

• Westmoreland fled, Northumberland executed, Norfolk imprisoned (not killed out of family loyalty) + released after 9 months

causes of the Northern Rebellion

• govt. was in the North of England → trad. nobility had lost some authority

• Earls had planned to marry M to Duke of Norfolk → would make him E’s heir + hopefully restore some of their power

• 450 rebels executed

• E gave important jobs to men she knew had more direct control → Earls angry that their power was being handed to others (in the North)

• disliked E’s ‘evil’ councillors → especially William Cecil who they blamed for loss of power + religious changes

excommunication of Elizabeth, 1570

• English Catholics free to rebel against E

• consequence: the Treason Act, 1571 → responded to the growing Catholic threat by saying that denying E’s leadership to the Church would be punishable by death

missionaries

• Pope encouraged Catholic priests to undertake secret missionary work in England to convert people back to Roman Catholicism

• if these men were discovered by E’s agents, they could be sentenced to death for treason

Ridolfi Plot, 1571

• inspired by excommunication of E → aimed to restore Catholicism in England → involved M, Pope, Philip of Spain + Duke of Norfolk

• Roberto Ridolfi → Italian banker → used by M to carry messages to Duke of Alva in Netherlands, Pope + Philip

• 1571, Ridolfi met Alva, commander of Spanish forces to convince him to invade England → not keen + wrote to Philip advising against it

• Duke of Norfolk’s servants being questioned by E’s govt. → plot revealed

Ridolfi Plot, 1571 consequences

• Duke of Norfolk put on trial + executed in 1572

• E would not execute M

• Ridolfi stayed in Europe rather than risk returning to England

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, 1572

• attack in France on Protestants by Catholic mobs which appeared to be supported by the Catholic govt.

  • bloodshed in France + worsening relations w/ Spain → greater fear + hatred to Catholicism in England

Edmund Campion and the Jesuits

• 1580, Catholic Jesuit Priest Edmund Campion arrived in England → personally served the Pope + travelled around trying to convert people to Catholicism + organise Catholics to rebel

  • often targeted rich + powerful families + mostly travelled in the north of England where Catholicism was strongest

• Jesuits often hid in ‘Priest holes’ hidden in the houses of the wealthy

• Campion captured + executed as a traitor in 1581

repression of Catholics

• 1581, recusancy fines raised + attempts to convert people to Catholicism was made treasonable

• 1585, Act against Jesuits + Seminary Priests → becoming a Priest was treasonable by death, also ordered Catholic Priests to leave England within 40 days or face death

  • also became legal to kill anyone who attempted to kill E

Throckmorton Plot, 1583

• 1572 → 1000s of French Protestants had been murdered on the orders of M’s relatives → increased fears of a Catholic attack in England, relations w/ Spain also declines → Drakes capturing Spanish money

• Francis Throckmorton → young English Catholic, carried letters bet. M + French + Spanish ambassadors → planned for Spain to fund an invasion by French Duke → aim to free M, replace E + restore Catholicism

• Walsingham found out what was happening → stopped plot, Throckmorton arrested + tortured → claimed that M was involved but later retracted this, claiming he only said it bc he was being tortured

Throckmorton Plot, 1583 consequences

• Throckmorton executed + Spanish ambassador expelled from England

• 2 Catholic nobles imprisoned

• 1584 Bond of Association → stated that anyone involved in plots to overthrow/assassinate E would be executed

Murder of William of Orange, 1584

• Dutch Protestant ruler murdered by extreme Catholic → supported by Pope → showed danger that E was in

Babington Plot, 1586

• Anthony Babington was a young Catholic who worked for the Earl of Shrewsbury, the man in charge of M’s custody → carried letters for M

• plan to murder E + replaced her w/ M → restore Catholicism → plan originated from a Catholic Priest (John Ballard)

• letters were written in code → unknown to M, E’s spymaster Walsingham knew abt letters → placed double agent who intercepted letters then sent them to be deciphered

  • Walsingham cleverly allowed the letters to be sent in order to allow the plot to unfold to prove M’s involvement

    • this worked → M wrote a coded letter approving the plot + crucially consenting the the assassination of E

Babington Plot, 1586

• Babington arrested + executed + 6 others hung, drawn + quartered

• M put on trial + it was insisted that E have her executed

Mary, QoS’ death

• E was indecisive + angered her advisors w/ delay about what to do

• Cecil prepared a death warrant + after a few months E signed it BUT only as a precautionary measure, giving her secretary instructions to not have it sealed

• council met w/o E’s knowledge + made a decision, ignoring E→ death warrant sealed → Feb 1587, M beheaded

Elizabeth’s response

• was furious → appeared to be wracked w/ guilt over the murder of a fellow monarch

• banished Cecil + refused to see him for 6 months, imprisoned secretary in the Tower of London

• E was aware of the dangers of killing M → made her into a Catholic martyr, HOWEVER English Catholics did not protest + were more loyal to E than she thought

response from abroad

• E already at war w/ Philip + M’s death displeased him further

• King of Scots protested at his mother’s execution + so did M’s brother in law, Catholic King of France → HOWEVER their protests came to nothing as E deflected the blame onto her secretary

causes of conflict with Spain pt1

religious differences

• England was Protestant, Spain was Catholic

• Philip saw E as a heretic

• Philip may have been angered at E’s marriage proposal rejection

causes of conflict with Spain pt2

rebellion in the Netherlands:

• Philip ruled Netherlands where most people were Protestant → did not like the strong hand of the Catholic rule

• civil war broke out in 1566 + Duke of Alba sent by Philip along w/ 10,000 other troops to deal w/ rebels in a brutal matter → increased hatred of Spain in England

• E also had a strong interest in events of Netherlands as the English economy relied on cloth trade based at Antwerp

• was in England’s interest for Protestants to overthrow Spanish but Spain was the richest + most powerful European power → E could not be too openly supportive of Dutch Protestants bc she would risk triggering war w/ Spain

• as a solution to this, ‘peace-party’ on PC gave indirect support to the rebels + unofficially, England helped Protestant cause by letting rebel ships to stay in English ports

causes of conflict with Spain pt3

privateers, plots + persecution

• English privateers such as Francis Drake attacked + raided Spanish fleets, stealing their gold + treasure → angered P

• P angered by E’s support of Huguenots

• P had also been plotting against E w/ encouragement from Pope

why did tension turn to war?

• Protestants in Netherlands were struggling → 1585 Treaty of Nonsuch signed in which England agreed to send 7000 troops (under Dudley’s command) to support the rebellion → England + Spain formally at war

• P outraged by M,QoS ‘unjust murder’ in 1587→ planned to invade

Spanish plans for invasion

• plans to invade delayed due to Drake’s raid on Spanish ships at Cadiz → destroyed most of their fleet + supplies

• did not stop P → started the Armada

leadership of the 2 sides

• P appointed Duke of Medina Sedonia to lead Armada → chosen bc of rank not ability → poor choice as he had no experience being at sea

• English fleet led expertly by Lord Howard (E’s cousin) → very experienced

resources of the 2 sides

• P had way better resources (professional army, equipment etc.)

• E, in comparison, was weak → did not have as many soldiers + had to use trading ships as she only had 34 battleships → in total, there were now ~200 ships

launch of the Armada

• Armada left in may 1588 → but ran into bad weather, losing supplies + forcing ship back for repairs → set sail again + arrived in England in a defensive crescent form

• P planned to pick up troops in the Netherlands, so the Armada had to pass the whole English coast (bit dumb of you Philip) → did not go unseen → England spotted Spanish + lit beacons + rung Church bells as warning

weaknesses of Armada

• key part of P’s plan relied on close communication between Medina Sedonia at sea + Parma in the Netherlands → was impossible

• English explorer Hawkins had spent years making improvements to the design of English ships to make them lighter, faster + more manoeuvrable than Spanish which were slow + large

• Spanish relied on getting close to enemy, but England kept distance using long-range guns called culverins to attack while still at a safe distance

fireships

• Armada anchored at Calais → Drake filled 8 old ships with tar + oil and set them on fire → sent them towards Spanish

• this scared the Spanish → crew panicked + cut their anchor ropes, fleeing out to sea

• crucially, in the panic, the Spanish ships were scattered by the wind + blown to dangerous sandbanks off the coast of the Netherlands → English broke tight crescent formation

Gravelines + Tilbury

• the next day, 2 fleets engaged in combat at the Battle of Gravelines → England now had advantage (had broken Spanish formation)

• manoeuvrable English ships now a tactical advantage

• Spanish had poorly designed guns that too up a lot of deck space so they proved impossible to reload after firing once

• English culverins quickly reloaded → did not lose a single ship

• Spain lost 5 ships + more were damaged, 1000 Spanish dead

defeat of the Armada

• God’s ‘Protestant wind’ blowing from SW damaged Spanish fleet + blew them into north sea

• change in wind direction meant that Spanish could not meet w/ Parma’s troops in the Netherlands → had to go home

• Armada chased by England up till the Scottish border

aftermath of Armada

• P disappointed, England celebrating → enormous propaganda for E

• England’s win had been taken as a sign of approval of Protestantism by God

• victory also paved the way for England to become huge naval power

• war continued after 1588, ended in 1604 → neither side really won