AP Psych Unit 5

cognition

thinking and mental processes (memory, desision making, problem solving, and language)

3 basic procceses in memory: encoding

**bringing in** information from enviornment and **proccessing** it

3 basic procceses in memory: storage

**holding** information in memory over time

3 basic procceses in memory: retrieval

locating and **pulling back information** from consiousnesss from memory

attention

info **most attended to** will encoded best and therefore **remembered better (**requires effort)

The cocktail party effect

in a crowded enviornment, we can focus on one conversation while blocking out the rest; however when your name (or something relavent to you) is said, your attention shifts

3 basic types of encoding: structural

encoding what the stimulis **looks** like

3 basic types of encoding: phonemic (acoustic)

encoding what the stimulis **sounds** like

3 basic types of encoding: semantic

encoding the **meaning** of the stimulis

elaborative encoding (deep form of encoding)

making connections between new and old info

self-referent encoding

a form of encoding that involvs making connections between new info and **yourself**

levels of proccessing Model of memory (#1)

how **deeply we encode** information determines how well we recall info. (deeper = better recall)

shallow v.s deep encoding

shallow - visual + acoustic

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deep- semantic + ellaborative + self referent

information proccesing model (memory model 2)

our memory is made of 3 memory stores; sensory memory; short-term memory; and long-term memory

sensory memory:

brings in info through all 5 senses for < 1 second (each sense has its own register)

sensory memory: iconic memory

sensory memory of visual stimuli (\~1/10 sec)

sensory memory: echoic memory

sensory memory of auditory stimuli (\~3-4 sec)

short term memory (STM) (AKA working memory)

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**how is information primarily retained?**

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**what is the primary type of encoding?**

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**what is the capacity of STM?**

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**What is the duration of STM?**

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information selectively atteneded to is sent here from sensory memory.

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**how is information primarily retained?**

rehersal/repetition (maitnence rehearsal)

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**what is the primary type of encoding?**

acoustic

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**what is the capacity of STM?**

7 +/- 2 items

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**What is the duration of STM?**

20 seconds.

chunking

grouping items (= increases the amount of info we can call)

Long term memory (LTM)

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what is the capacity of LTM?

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what is the duration of LTM?

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What is the primary type of encoding?

**what is the capacity of LTM?**

unlimited

**what is the duration of LTM?**

forever

**What is the primary type of encoding?**

semantic (semantic +visual = best)

what is consolidation? when does memory consolidation typically occur?

solidifying a memory;making it permanent

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during sleep (Specifically REM)

Flashbulb memories

detailed, vivid memories of emotionally significant evenets (usually when we **first heard the information**)

schemas

**mental representations** of emotionally significant events (usually when we first heard the info)

Parallel distributed proccessing (PDP) Model. (AKA Connectionist model)

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* memory model 3

our memory consists of an interconnected network of facts/memories where new info is added to the “web” “network”. therefore, increased interconnectedness produces better memory (semantic network = “web” of interconnected facts)

mnemonic devices

stratergies for enhancing memory that involve unusal associations

acrostics & acronyms

phrases (please excuse my dear aunt sally)

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a word formed by using first letters (P.E.M.D.A.S)

Link method (story method)

forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links together

method of loci (memory palace)

taking an imaginary walk around a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are accociated with certain location

overlearning

continued rehersal of material after you first appear to have it mastered + overcoming the forgetting curve

context dependant learning

remember info best in the same similar **phsyical location** as where info was learned

state dependant learning

remembering info best in the same **psychological state** as when we learned the info

mood congruency

info proccesing / recall is faciliated if a person’s **emotional state** is similar to the tone of info; or same emotional state

distributed / spaced practice

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massed practice

studying in small chunks

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studying in large intervals

the serial position curve (serial position effect)

* primary effect:
* echoic memory

serial position effect:

better recall of items at the begginin og a list and at the end of a list “U SHAPED retention curve”

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primary effect- better recall of items at the beggining of a list

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recency effect: better recall of items at the end of a list

tip of the tongue phenomenon

retreival of incomplete info

constructive memory

using existing knowlege / **schemas** / expirences to fill in the gaps in info during encoding and rerieval ex:mandella effect

elizabeth loftus’ research & misinformation effect

memories are never a perfect recall, can change due to framing and new information provided. (car hitting, smashing v.s bumped).

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misinformation effect- when memory is altered by misleading **post event** info

reality monitoring

the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of **actual** events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginations)

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ex: “can you check if i unplugged the hair straightener or did i just imagine that”

source………

monitering

monitering error

amnesia

making attributions about the orgins of memory (who told me? where did i read it?) (error = mistake, amnesia = don’t know)

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ex: “ ………”

“that was my story?”

destination memory

recalling to whom one has told what

forgetting curve - hermann ebbinghaus

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researched forgetting

* made list of nonsense syllables
* rehearsed until memory
* never looked again
* tested retention
* learning curve

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most forgetting happens: within 1st hour

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after about 9 hoyrs, memory is relatively constant

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retention = proportion of material retained (remembered)

recall

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vs

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recongnition

no cues (ex: free response)

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selection from an array of options

(ex: multiple choice)

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method of savings (AKA relearning)

less time / fewer trials are needed to memorize/remember info after having forgotten

ineffective encoding

you didn’t really forget…..you never encoded it in teh first place

decay

gradual erosion of memory (fading; you dont use it, you loose it)

retroactive interferance

new (similar) info impairs recall of **old** info

proactive interference

old info impairs learning/ recall of **new (**similar ) info

transfer appropriate processing model (memory model #4)

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encoding specifity principle-

how well we remember info is based on how encoding matches retrieval

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the best retreival cues are those that match the way the info is encoded

motivated forgetting (repression)

pushing memories into the unconsious (psychodynamic approach)

retrospective memroy

remembering events from the **past** or previously learned information

prospective memory

remembering to perform actions in the **future**

episodic memory

memories of specific events that happened **while you were present. (**i remember when..)

semantic memory

memories of **factual info;** generalized knowledge

procedural memory

memories of psychial skills (crebellum and basal ganglia play a large role)

declarative memory (explicit memory)

(created through EFFORTFUL PROCCESING)

Factual information (semantic/ episodic memories are included here) (hippocampus/frontal lobe largely responsible for formation)

nondeclaritave memory (implicit memory)

actions, skills, classically conditioned repsonses, emotional responses (procedual memories fit here)

long term potentiation

increase in synapatic strength, practice/ reviewing strengthens synaptic connections to improve memory (less stimulation is requried to release same amount of neurotransmitter

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory prior to onsent of amnesia

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory of events occuring after the onset of amnesia (inability to form new memories) (due to h

which structutres and neurotransmitters are involved in memory funtion

1. hippocampus (consolidation )
2. thalamus
3. prefrontal cortext
4. amygdala
5. cerellebulm / basal ganglia
6. assoication cortext

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1. acetylcholine
2. glutamate

functional fixedness

the tendency to percieve an **item** only in terms of its most commun use; the inibality to use **objects** in different ways

mental set

Persistence in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. This is a barrier when it prevents you from seeing other ways of solving a problem.  

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fixation

focusing on only one aspect of a problem; inibality to see a problem from another perspectives

unnecesary constraints

tendency to impose our own "rules" that are not part of the problem

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algorithm

a methodical, step by step process for trying all possible solutions to a problem

(can be very time consuming; if a solution exists, you are guaranteed to find the solution)

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ex: guessing a password

Heuristics

a “rule of thumb” or “**mental shortcut”** used in problem solving or desision making (much quicker)

decomposition (AKA forming subgoals)

breaking down a problem into smaller parts

using analogies

making a connection between the current problem and a problem you have already solved and then using a similair stratergy to solve

incubation

setting the problem aside for a little while and coming back to it later (can lead to insight or breaking of a mental set)

multiattribute deision making

(AKA Additive strategy )

* attributes
* utility

attributes:

* factors to be considered in decision making

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utility:

* personal value of each attribute (weighing pros and cons)

availability heuristic

a mental shortcut in desision making based on how readily (quickly) relavent instances come to mind (based on headlines, recent experiences etc)

representative heuristic (incl. prototype)

mental shortcut where someoene makes a desision based on how something fits thier schema or prototype of a concept (basis for explaning sterotypes)

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prototype: best example of a category (icon for the schema allows for quick comparisons)

overconfidence

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs, judgements, abilities that may lead to poor desision making and/ or decreased performances

belief perserverance

"clinging" to one's initial beliefs after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

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\*In a free response, be sure to state the opinion first, then the discrediting information, and last that the initial belief remains. \*

the gambler’s fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occured recently. (random events will correct themselves)

ex: “we have had 3 girls, the next one HAS TO be a boy”

confirmation bias

the tendancy to only seek info, recall info , or interpret info in wats that is likely to support one’s desision and beliefs

framing effect

desision making can be affected by how choices are structures (i.e: wording of questions)

phonemes

smallest element of **sound**

ex: cat = c/a/t

that = th/a/t

morphemes

smallest unit of language that provides **meaning**

prefix + base word

ex: cat ( 1 morepheme ) v.s cats (2 morephnes)

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ex: un - friend- ly (3 morephenes)

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syntax

rules that govern the arrangment of words '

ex: subject-verb-object NOT verb-object - subject (in english)

sam ate pizza not ate pizza sam

semantics

rules that govern the **meaning** of words and phrases

Surface Structure

string of words

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Deep Structure

underlying meaning(s)

milestones in language development:

Cooing

Babbling

One-word stage

Two-word stage (Telegraphic speech)

Subject-verb-objects

cooing- giggling; gurgling

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babbling- repeating syllables over and over

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one word stage- names ; objects (must be physical objects/people)

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two word stage (telegraphic speech)- subject + verb (very obvious communication

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subject-verb objects- simple sentences

overextension and underextension

when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a **wider** set of objects or actions

ex- every meal was a snack

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whena child incorectly uses a word to describe a **narrower** set of objects or actions

ex- “go to daddy’s car”

* “ daddy has a truck”

overregularization

over generalizing gramatical rules ex: i goed to the store

metalinguistic awarness

the ability to “understand” language; understanding literal meaning vs implied meaning

behaviorist theories (of language acquisition)

= learning (nurture)

a. imitation / modeling

b. reinforcement/rewards (and punishments)

chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD) (Nativist theory of language acquisition)

an innate mechanism or proccess that faciliates the learning of a language

critical period (of language development)

an optimal period early in life when exposure to certain stimuli or expierences produces normal development

linguistic relativity (whorfian hypothesis) and linguistic determinism.

hypothesis that states that one’s language influecnes the nature of one’s thoughts and perceptions ex: inuit and snow; spanish verbs