Khufu
Pharaoh who built the Great Pyramid of Giza
Sneferu
Pharaoh who built the Bent Pyramid
Djoser
Pharaoh known for building the Step Pyramid
Cataract
Rocky rapids in the Nile River
Nile River
Longest river in Africa, crucial for ancient Egyptian civilization
Narmer
First pharaoh of Upper and Lower Egypt
Mummification
Preservation of the body for the afterlife
Sled
Wooden device used to transport heavy stone blocks
Mediterranean Sea
Large body of water crucial for trade
Temple
Sacred structure for religious rituals and worship
Tomb
Burial place, often elaborate for pharaohs and high-ranking individuals
Jean-Pierre Houdin
French architect, proposed the Internal Ramp Theory
Ramp Theory
Jean-Pierre Houdin's theory of a spiral ramp within the pyramid
Notch
V-shaped cut or indentation in an object
Plumb bob
Weighted object used for vertical alignment
John Romer
Famous Egyptologist
Sediments
Particles at the bottom of bodies of water, provide valuable information about the environment
Afterlife
Existence or realm after death
Limestone
Commonly used building material in ancient Egypt
Surplus
Excessive amount of food
Agriculture
Farming and cultivation of the soil and animals
Selective breeding
Choosing specific plants or animals with desirable traits to reproduce
Domestication of animals
Taming and breeding animals for human use
Domestication of plants
Cultivation and modification of plants for human use
Birth of cities
Relatively permanent and organized centers of population
Migration
Movement of individuals or groups of people from one place to another
Push and Pull Factors
Conditions that encourage people to leave or stay in a particular place
Otzi
First human found in ice, provides insight into ancient human life
Survival in the Mountains
Adapting to challenges of high-altitude environments
Hominid
Family of primates that includes humans and their ancestors
Homo Sapiens
Modern humans
Homo Habilis
Early tool-making era of humans
Homo Erectus
Fire and tool-making era of humans
Neanderthal
Big humans who lived in Europe and Asia
Australopithecus
Extinct hominins like Lucy, most complete hominin
Artifact
Object made or modified by humans
Archaeology
Study of human history through artifacts
Carbon dating
Method to determine the age of organic materials
Olduvai Gorge
Paleontological and archaeological site in Tanzania
Tools
Objects used to perform tasks or achieve goals
Weapons
Tools designed and used for combat or hunting
Cognitive Revolution
Increase in complexity of human thought, language, and cooperation
Collective Learning
Learning through other people
Flint Knapping
Shaping flint or stone into tools
Language
System of communication using symbols, sounds, or gestures
Out of Africa Theory
Homo sapiens originated in Africa and migrated to other parts of the world
Foraging
Hunting and gathering for survival
Nomads
People who move from place to place
Specialization
Focusing on specific tasks or skills
Craftsmanship
Skillful creation of goods
Social Class
System of ranking based on wealth, job, and status
Cradle of Civilization
Regions where the earliest civilizations emerged
Babylonian Empire
Ancient Mesopotamian empire centered in Babylon
Assyrian Empire
Powerful empire in ancient Mesopotamia known for military prowess
Akkadian Empire
Early empire in Mesopotamia founded by Sargon the Great
Sumerian
One of the earliest civilizations in Mesopotamia
Sargon the Great
Founder of the Akkadian Empire
Gilgamesh
King of Uruk in ancient Mesopotamia
Enkidu
Character from the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh's best friend
Assurbanipal
King known for his extensive library in Nineveh
Polytheism
Belief in and worship of multiple gods
Ziggurat
Stepped pyramid-like structure used as a temple
Battering Rams
Ancient siege weapons used to break down doors or walls
Iron Age
Period of human history with widespread use of iron
Irrigation
Artificial application of water for agriculture
Cuneiform
Sumerian writing system using triangles
Scribe
Person who can read and write
Hammurabi Code
Earliest and most complete set of laws and punishments
Fertile Crescent
Region with fertile soil, important for early civilizations
Empire
Large political unit with one emperor
Behistun Inscription
Cuneiform inscription on a cliff in Iran
Lugalzagesi
Sumerian king who ruled over several city-states
Siege towers
Used to approach and scale fortification walls during a siege
Curved shields
Shields used by ancient warriors for protection
Engineers
Individuals skilled in designing and constructing complex systems
Ur-Nammu
Founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur and a Sumerian king
Sumerian Religion
Worship of gods and goddesses associated with nature and society
Shamash
Sumerian god of justice and the sun
Innana
Sumerian goddess of love, beauty, fertility, and war
Ishtar
Akkadian counterpart of the Sumerian goddess Inanna
Ishtar Gate
Grand entrance to the city of Babylon dedicated to the goddess Ishtar
Assyrian Violence
Aggressive and brutal military campaigns of the Assyrian Empire
Mass deportation
Forcibly relocating large groups of people
Forced Resettlement
Involuntary movement of people for political or military reasons
Impalement
Form of execution by piercing with a sharp stake
Burning people alive
Brutal form of execution involving fire
Flaying
Removal of the skin from a person or animal
Mutilation
Intentionally causing severe injury or disfigurement
Sumerian Achievements
Cuneiform, welding, tool and weapon making, number system, time system
Global trade
Trade networks connecting different regions
Numbering system
Sumerian system using 0-60
Time measurement system
Dividing the day into various units
Public library
Housed a vast collection of cuneiform tablets
Chemistry and welding
Techniques for extracting metals and welding
Metallurgy
Working with copper, bronze, and iron
Hydraulic engineering
Constructing irrigation systems
Archives
Containing cuneiform tablets documenting various aspects of life
Currency and weight systems
Standardized trade using silver bars as currency
Beer and wine making
Brewing beer for religious contexts
Epic Poetry
Big poems orally spoken to tell stories