Britain: Conflict, Revolution and Settlement 1625-88

1625

• Charles I crowned King -> His relationship with Parliament rapidly deteriorated (Broke down over religion (he openly supported Arminianism caused problem), foreign policy failures (Buckingham), finance and problems of government). 

• Failure of Buckingham's Expedition to Cadiz, Spain -> National Humiliation. 

• Parliament granted 2 subsidies amounting to £140,000 however this fell short of the £1 million Charles needed. 

1626 

• Failure of Buckingham's Expedition to Mansfed, France -> National Humiliation. 

• Force Loan levied (enforced) due to subsidies in 1625 not being enough (also dissolved parliament over this. This force loan was worth 5 subsidies. Caused much resentment as it was not agreed with Parliament. Some say this shows Charles I absolutist intentions. 

• Charles I marries Henrietta Maria - Catholic, had a strong influence on Charles I. 

1627

• Failure of Buckingham's Expedition to La Rochelle (Sought to help the Protestant French Huguenots) -> National Humiliation. 

• Five Knights Case -> Imprisoned because they refused to pay the force loan. Showed Charles I absolutists intentions as he was not only taxing without consent but also imprisoning as he wished. 

1628 

• Petition of Rights -> MP's said they would not grant any more money unless their grievances were addressed; No taxation without Parliament consent, no imprisonment without cause shown, no billeting, no martial law. The King accepted these. 

• Assassination of Buckingham because of Parliaments anger due to foreign policy failures. -> Public & Parliament celebrated his death which made Charles I even more hostile towards them. 

• Arminian William Laud became the bishop of London. 

1629

• Three Resolutions -> Parliament denounced Arminianism and encouraged merchants to refuse to pay tonnage and poundage (money from imports and exports). 

• 10th March 1629 Charles I announced the dissolution of parliament and embarked on the 11 Year Tyranny -> Came to an end after events in Scotland forced Charles to recall parliament in 1640. He wanted to secure his financial situation and impose Arminianism. 

• Peace Treaty with France - reduced major costs. 

1630 

• Peace with Spain - reduced major costs. 

• Imposition of Laudianism in England and Scotland. Focused on the "beauty of holiness", through wearing vestments and use of music, candles and altar cloths (made sure people conformed through visitations). Limited examples of open opposition indicate that there was general passive acceptance of Laudianism. Laud also made use of the Court of High Commission to punish those who refused to implement Laudianism. 

1633 

• Charles Crowned in Scotland. 

• William Laud a prominent Arminian made Archbishop of Canterbury. He worked to impose great religious uniformity on church services; stained glass window put in churches; communion table moved to the east of the Church; hymns and sacred music was encouraged. These measures angered Puritans as they believed he was making the church more Catholic. 

1635 

• Ship Money levied (enforced) on whole country -> Proved to be very successful. Parliament subsidies were worth around £70,000, Ship Money alone gave Charles £200,000 - less likely to have to call Parliament. However this method of collecting tax caused much opposition and resentment.

1637 

• Outbreak of the Scottish Rebellion. This was because Charles I decided to impose the Laudian Prayer Book on Presbyterian Scotland, without consulting the Scottish Parliament (Laudianism went totally against Presbyterianism). 

• Around 80,000 Puritan emigrated from England around the 1630's to Ireland, West Indies, Dutch Republic and America in search of religious freedom. With the breakdown of Charles I authority due to the Scottish Rebellion some began to return. 

1638 

300,000 Scots signed the National Covenant in protest against Charles actions. Charles I tried to crush this however this merely escalated the revolt to become the Bishop's Wars, which some regard as the start of the British Civil Wars. 

1639 

First Bishops War -> Scots were well organised and motivated, whereas Charles had insufficient funds to pay for his military campaigns. 

1640 

• Parliament called back on Stratford's advice - to raise an army to crush the Scots. 

• Short Parliament refused to make concessions and wanted Charles to remove Laudianism, therefore only lasts 3 weeks. Main opposition by Puritans such as John Pym. 

• Root and Branch Petition as Charles I hasn't got the financial backing. Charles was forced to pay £850 a day to the Scots until a settlement was reached. 

• Scots invade Newcastle. 

• Long Parliament met for the first time. 

• MP's abolished Ship Money. 

• Root and Branch Petition - Removal of Bishops from the Church. 

1641 

• Irish Rebellion. 

• Grand Remonstrance Passed - A document listing all of Charles I faults since 1625 and thus reasons why he could not be trusted with armed forces. 

• Militia Bill - Proposed that parliament should control the army used to crush the Irish Rebellion. 

• Bill of Attainder - Used in Parliament by Pym to justify the execution of Charles' principal minister, Thomas Wentworth. 

• Triennial Act: Meant Parliament must be called at least every 3 years (Personal Rule was less likely). 

• Most moderate MP's saw these as examples of increasing, and dangerous radicalism. This created 2 sides necessary for Civil War. 

1642 

• Attempted arrest of 5 MP's (the leading 5 MP's against him)- These MPs had been pre-warned and had fled. This was embarrassing for Charles I and proved Parliament that Charles I could not be trusted. 

• Charles I leaves London -  intimidated by the growing unrest. 

• Militia Ordinance Passed - Took away the Kings power to control the army. 

• Outbreak of Civil War in England. 

• 19 Propositions - The Lords and Commons should approve all Privy Councillors; Militia should be placed under parliamentary control; reform of the church; parliament should supervise the marriage and upbringing of Charles I children. The severity of these demands suggest that parliament was not really willing to negotiate with the King. 

1643 

Parliament introduced a series of reforms to the Church of England - The book of Common Prayer was banned; Arminian features in Churches removed; Traditional Christian festivals such as Christmas and Easter were no longer celebrated. 

1645 

New Model Army created under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax (15,000 infantry) and Oliver Cromwell (7,000 cavalry) - 22,000 trained soldiers in total. They had thorough training, regular pay, professional discipline, promoted by merit, habit of winning. Resulted in them becoming a strong force and potential political force. 

1646 

• Defeat of Charles and Royalists in First Civil War. 

• Newcastle Propositions sent by Parliament to the King; The office of bishops in the Anglican Church was to be abolished; strict anti-Catholic laws to be enforced; Parliament was to take control of the army for 20 years. 

1647 

• Scots hand Charles I over to Parliament. 

• Politicisation of the New Model Army (became a 3rd factor in negotiations for settlement). 

• Heads of Proposals presented to Charles I. This was made by the NMA as they now gained custody of the King. More moderate compared to the Newcastle Propositions as the army wanted a lasting and stable government. Their proposals included; Parliament should meet every 2 years; Constituencies were to be reorganised to reflect population size and local wealth; Anglican bishops were to remain. 

• Charles made secret negotiation with the Scots stating that he would impose Presbyterianism in England for 3 years in exchange for a Scottish army. 

1648 

• Parliament breaks off negotiations with Charles. 

• Outbreak of Second Civil War. 

• Remonstrance published - Declared the King was guilty of high treason for starting the Second Civil War and should be put on trial. 

• Pride's Purge - Troops arrested 45 MP's and excluded a further 186 from the Commons. 

1649 

• Charles I tried and executed- He would not answer the charges made against him (character). 

• Diggers establish a commune in Surrey. 

• After Charles I execution many attempts were made to establish a stable republican regime acceptable to the country as a whole. They all failed, leading to the Stuart Restoration in 1660. 

• The Rump abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, and declared England to be a Commonwealth. 

1651 

Navigation Act: only English ships would be allowed to bring goods into England, and that the North American colonies could only export its commodities, such as tobacco and sugar, to England.

1653 

• Cromwell expels the Rump. Failures of the Rump include; the conservative nature of many MP's; limited finances - without substantial resources, the MP's of the Rump were less inclined to initiate significant reform; the threat from Ireland and Scotland - Rump had to employ its immediate resources and time; fear of radical religious groups; fear of the NMA - Pride's Purge showed Parliament that they held real power; the Dutch War - resources and time was spent on this war (Broke out in 1652). 

• Rump replaced with the Nominated Assembly. The Nominated Assembly composed of members nominated by the government; they were religious radicals determined to establish godly rule in the country. They legalised civil marriage, established the register of deaths, births and marriages, also the revenue system was reformed. 

• Oliver Cromwell made Lord Protector as the Nominated Assembly lost much support due to being radical, so Cromwell forced their dissolution. 

• Instrument of Government written up - Established the republican form of Government and granted liberty of worship to all expect Catholics and extreme Puritans. 

• Commonwealth replaced with the Protectorate - Government was to be elected every 3 years and Cromwell was Lord Protector. 

• Nayler achieved national notoriety when he re-enacted Christ's Palm Sunday entry into Jerusalem by entering Bristol on a horse - convicted of blasphemy in a highly publicised trial, and sentenced to 2 years imprisonment, with hard labour.  He was whipped through Bristol streets, branded with the letter B on his forehead, and his tongue was pierced with a hot iron.

1657 

Humble Petition and Advice - Offered the Protector the Crown of England, however Cromwell refused. He did though accept the office of Lord Protector for life and the power to chose his successor. 

1658 

• Oliver Cromwell dies. 

• Oliver Cromwell succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell. He has little political experience and had no strong links with the NMA, the key power group. 

1659 

Richard Cromwell removed from office by army leaders. 

1660 

• General George Monck (commander of the army in Scotland) presented a petition which demanded the restoration of monarchy. 

• Restoration of traditional government; King, Lords and Commons. Charles II was welcomed and returned to London from exile abroad. 

• Charles II issues the Declaration of Breda - Promises he will listen to the advice of Parliament; people would not be prosecuted for their actions during the Civil War expect if they took part in the execution of Charles I; toleration for peaceful religious beliefs; disputes over land would be handled by parliament; payment of the army's wages. 

• Anglican Church was restored. 

• The Convention oversaw the peaceful disbanding of the NMA. 

1661 

The Corporation Act - Required all involved in local government to be communicant members of the Church of England. 

1662 

• Act of Uniformity - Required all clergymen to accepts Anglican doctrines and rituals (hundreds of parish men lost their livings due to this). Made the Book of Common Prayer compulsory in all churches. 

• The Quaker Act - imposed severe financial penalties on Quakers. They also had to take an oath of alliance to the King. 

• Both these acts where due to the Cavalier Parliament who were determined to restore the Anglican Church and persecute non-conformists. Charles II tried to change some of the harsher aspects of the religious settlement, however this only caused more conflict between crown and parliament. 

• Hearth Tax - Gave Charles II £1.2 million a year. It was a tax on all fireplaces and stoves in the Kingdom. However this was not enough to make him independent and Parliament used this to limit Charles as that made him reliant on parliamentary funds therefore constant consent from Parliament. 

1667 

Removal of Clarendon - Held responsible for England's humiliating defeat in the Second Dutch War of 1665-1667. The removal of Clarendon led to a group of diverse ministers fulfilling his role - Clifford, Arlington and Lauderdale. 

1670 

Secret Treaty of Dover - Between Charles II and Louis XIV of France - Charles agreed to join France in any future French War against the Dutch. Charles also agreed to convert to Catholicism when he felt the time was right in return for a pension. Parliament not happy with this because Louis XIV is an absolutist and Catholic and sympathized with the Protestant Dutch. This promoted an anti-Catholic feeling. 

1672 

• Charles II forced to issue the Stop of the Exchequer. 

• The Third Dutch War (1672-1674) - Started by Charles and was very unpopular with Parliament. Made Charles II go bankrupt. 

• Declaration of Indulgence - Granted substantial measure of religious freedoms to Catholics and dissenters. Tried to grant further religious tolerance. Angered Parliament further. Did not include Jews, Catholics, and Non-Trinnitarians

1673 

Test Act - Required all office holders to declare their opposition to Catholic religious doctrines. This meant that the Kings brother, James was excluded from high office. 

1677 

William of Orange marries Jame's daughter Mary. 

1678 

• Exclusion Crisis (1678-1681). 

• Popish Plot - Titus Oats formed wild allegations made against Catholic nobles and the Queen, stating that they were planning to murder the King and replace him with the Duke of York. This forced Charles to dissolve the Cavalier Parliament in January 1679. -> anti-Catholic feelings reached their peak. 

• The Exclusion Crisis led to the emergence of 2 political groupings; The Whigs (Supported exclusion and claimed that toleration of Catholics would cause a drift towards royal absolutism) and the Tories (Strong belief in the power of monarchy, hereditary succession and respect for authority). 

1685 

• Death of Charles II. 

• James II becomes King - Strong support from the Tories and the Anglican Church - granted him substantial funding. 

• James II downfalls: He appointed Catholics to a number of offices (Privy Council and officers in the army); Over 200 Catholics replaced Protestants as Justices of the Peace; in 1687 he tried to broaden his support with the Declaration of Indulgence, which suspended laws against both Catholics and dissenters. 

• Parliament accepted these in hope that James II reign would not last long and he would be replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary who would reverse all these actions. 

1687 

Declaration of Indulgence - Freed Catholics and Protestant non-conformists from their religious restrictions. Many Anglicans saw this as a threat to the position of the Church of England and therefore it was not carried out. 

1688 

• A second Declaration of Indulgence was ordered to be read in all churches by James II. However many dissenters did not trust it and believed it was passed to benefit the Catholics. Therefore it is believed this is one of the main reasons James II was removed from the throne and one of the causes of the Glorious Revolution. 

• James II flees London and forcibly removed from the throne. This was because his wife gave birth to a son which threatened the permanent establishment of Catholicism in England. 

• 9 Years War (1688-1697) - William took Britain into the League of Augsburg, a coalition of European powers ranged against Louis XIV's France. Had a significant impact on domestic policies - government of the country often left to his wife; creation of a Court party which would carry out the king's bidding; parliament summoned every year to gain taxes to fund the war. Over 70,000 troops where involved and the conflict cost £5 million per year -> This led to a financial revolution and marked a profound shift in power from the monarch to parliament.

1689 

• Protestants William and Mary are jointly offered the Crown. 

• The Convention Parliament - Resolution formed to satisfy both Tories and Whigs by which they could get rid of James. It sated James II had broken the contract between King and People (Whig); He violated the country's fundamental laws (Whigs); His flight meant that he had abdicated the throne (Tory). 

• Toleration Act. 

• Declaration of Rights - Listed all the errors which James II had committed and asserted that laws could not be suspended without parliaments consent; parliament had to approve all forms of taxation; parliament should meet frequently. 

• Bill of Rights - Imposed many limits on Williams and Marys royal prerogative; Parliaments consent was needed to raise taxes, maintenance of a standing army and the suspension of some laws. 

1693 

Million Loan Act - Intended to raise a loan of £1 million and repayment was guaranteed (important innovation to raise money). 

1694 

• Bank of England Founded. This was after investors where invited to raise a loan of £1.2 million to pay for the war. As a result of this and the million loan act the prestige of London money markets grew and became a major financial centre. 

• Triennial Act - No future parliament could last longer than three years. This limited the Crown's powers as previously the monarch dissolved any parliament that challenged them or extend the life of parliament which suited them. However patronage and pensions where still used to bribe MP's to obey the royal will. Frequent elections also increased party rivalry and the growing divisions between the Whigs and the Tories. 

1700

• Land Tax introduced in the 1690s to fund the 9 Year War. By 1700 it accounted for half of the income raised from taxation and it was very difficult to avoid. This established a permanent and effective way to raise money which continued long after the war had ended. 

• By 1700 9% of the nations wealth went towards taxation. 

• There was a growing confidence in the reliability of the state and its ability to repay its depts. 

• Parliament became a permanent feature of the system of government as the crowns ability to raise funds for the war was dependent on their approval. 

 1701 

Act of Settlement: reinforcing the Bill of Rights agreed by William and Mary in 1689. The main aim of this legislation was to ensure a Protestant succession to the English throne.

Religion 

• The Anglican Church was a middle way between Catholicism and European Protestantism. 

• By 1625 there were growing division within Anglicanism. 

• Arminianism - Promoted church services involving rituals and formal ceremony. Followed the traditional Catholic belief in free will, meaning people could choose whether or not to follow a path of salvation. 

• Puritans - Anglicans who opposed rituals and priestly vestments. Promoted simplicity and wanted to purify the church. Believed in Calvinist doctrine that God had already chosen who will be saved. Were concerned about people's morals. 

• In the years to 1640, the Church of England played a key role in the country's political and social life. 

• By 1660, although the Anglican Church had been restored, it could no longer pretend to have exclusive control over the country's religious beliefs. 

• During and after the Civil War, religious divisions multiplied, with the creation of radical religious groups. 

• During the Interregnum the New Model Army protected non-conformists from prosecution. 

• Anti-Catholicism was a key theme through the 17th century. Most people not opposed to Catholicism however anti-Catholic feeling could fleer up according to the political situation. Catholicism became increasingly associated with political absolutism, leading to suspicions that the Stuart Kings intended to abolish parliament and establish an absolutist rule, like the French Model. 

• Cromwell did not carry out any persecution of Catholics, however, he used the general fear of Catholics to promote republican virtues. 

Radical Religious Groups 

• Baptists. 

• Ranters. 

• Levellers.

• Diggers.

• Millenarians. 

• Muggletonians. 

• Fifth Monarchists - Formed a political grouping under Major General Thomas Harrison. 

• Quakers -One of the most significant; By the late 1650s it had grown to 50,000 members. Before 1660 it was willing to make direct political action and use violence to achieve their aims. Linked to the NMA as many had served them. 

Glorious Revolution 1688-89 Interpretation of events 

• Whig Historians - brought about fundamental change. Led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy where parliament had more control. 

• Critics of Whigs believe that it was more of a reformation than a revolution. Only brought about stability by changing the monarch. 

• Others believed it confirmed the power of the political elite. Led to gradual increase of the power of parliament at the expense of the monarch.