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hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
double blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated -- the variable whose effect is being studied
dependent variables
the outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
mode
the most frequent occurring score(s) in a distribution
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
median
the middle score in a distribution -- half the scores are above it and half are below it
standard deviations
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
random sampling
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
scatter plot
a graphed cluster of dots, data shows correlation or the direction of relationship between two variables
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. the correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (ind. variables and dep. variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental processes.
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
operational definition
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. ex -- human intelligence, what an intelligence test measures
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
theory
an explanation using the integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
population
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
sample
items selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
normal curve/distribution
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean, and fewer near the extremes
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance
informed consent
an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants