Cognitive Studies

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Aim of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

To study the recency effect on the overall recall of words listed.

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Method of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

Repeated measures

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Participants of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

46 army enlisted men

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Procedure of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

Participants were given 3 5-word practice lists. Participants were shown 15 fifteen-word lists on a projector. Words were simple one-syllable words. All pps were tested individually. Each word shown for 1 second and there was 2 second interval between words as experimenter read the words aloud. Participants either saw a hashtag (#) or a number from 0-9. experimenter said write asking pps to recall as many words rmbed in order. 0-9, start counting from that number until experimenter stated write. Experimenters stopped them either after 10 or 30 seconds (Delayed recall for 10 or 30 seconds)

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Results of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

Primary and recency effects were observed during immediate recall. 10 second distraction task: Significant reduction in recency effect. 30 second delay: No trace of recency effect

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Conclusion of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

The study implies that disruptions of memory rehearsal in the short term memory store directly influence the primacy and recency effect.

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Strengths of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

Reduced participant variables: as the same participants were used throughout all trials of the experiment, differences in participants behavior are not going to skew results drastically. Less time consuming: data collection is efficient as it is unncessary to recruit different samples for each condition in the experiment. Controlled variables: time intervals and duration of projected words were strictly controlled to prevent the occurrence of any confounding variables.

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Limitations of Glanzer and Cunitz 2

Order effects: exposure to first conditions cause participants to utilize additional memory recall strategies when being exposed to distractions, altering their observed behaviors and number of words recalled. High sampling bias: results obtained from a small sample of 46 army men cannot be generalized to other demographics within the full population e.g adult women, adolescents etc

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Research method of HM

Case study

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Aim of HM

To study the role of the hippocampus on memory formation

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Method of HM

Method triangulation: IQ testing, observation, interviews, memory recall test, MRI

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Background of HM

After undergoing a lobotomy to remove the hippocampus in the hopes of lessening his seizures: HM could not acquire new episodic knowledge or new semantic knowledge. Procedural memories were maintained. Suffered from anterograde and mild retrograde amnesia

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Results of HM

Researchers found that short-term memory is not stored in the hippocampus as HM was able to retain information for a while if he rehearsed it. The medial temporal region is not the site of permanent memory storage but rather plays a role in the organisation and permanent storage of memories elsewhere in the brain.

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Conclusion of HM

The hippocampus plays a critical role in converting memories of experiences from short-term memory to long-term memory

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Ethical considerations of HM

High ethical standards of informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm

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Aim of Landry and Bartling

The aim of the study was to investigate if articulatory suppression would influence the recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall.

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procedures of Landry and Bartling

To do this, they gathered 34 participants that were all undergraduate psychology students. Each participant was tested separately in an independent samples design. The experimental group received a list of letters they had to recall while saying the numbers '1' and '2' at a rate of two numbers per second (an articulatory suppression task). The control group also received the list of letters but did not carry out the articulatory suppression task. The ten lists consisted of the letters F, K, L, M, R, X, and Q in a randomly constructed order. These letters were chosen because they don't sound similar. The experimenter presented one letter series at a time and the participants then received an answer sheet. In the control group, the experimenter showed the participants a printed list for five seconds and then told them to wait another five seconds before writing down the correct order of the letters on the answer sheet as accurately as possible. This was repeated ten times. The experimental group received the same instructions but were told to repeatedly say the numbers '1' and '2' at the rate of two numbers per second throughout the experiment. This was also repeated ten times. Each trial was only scored as correct if the letters were in the correct position.

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results of Landry and Bartling

Landry and Bartling found that the scores from the experimental group were much lower than the scores from the control group. The mean percent of acurate recall in the control group was 76%, while the mean for the control group was 45%.

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conclusion of Landry and Bartling

Landry and Bartling concluded that the experimental hypothesis was supported by the results as the mean percent of accurate recall in the control group was higher than the mean percent of accurate recall in the experimental group. As the Working Memory model states, the articulatory suppression task prevented rehearsal in the phonological loop because of overload. The participants in the control group did not receive that overload

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evaluation of Landry and Bartling

This study is weak in that its entire sample only comes from undergraduate psychology students. This makes the results less generalizable to a larger population. However, this study is strong in that there is a strong control of variables (for example, making sure the letters don't sound similar) leaves less room for confounding variables, the experimental design of the study allows a cause-effect connection to be made.

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case of KF

KF suffered from brain damage due to a motorcycle accident

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issue of KF

what they realised was that the digit span of KF was only 2 digits (normal people on average can remember 7). Shallice and Warrington also realised that KF's short term forgetting of auditory letters and digits was much greater than his forgetting of visual stimuli. They also learned that KF's short term memory deficit was limited to verbal materials (letters and words) and not not to meaningful sounds (cats mewing).

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methods of KF

They used triangulation techniques to find these defects. They conducted 5 different experiments. 1-Free recall: 10 high frequency words each of 4-5 letters were read to KF at a rate of 1 word per 2 seconds. Kf was then given 1 minute for the recall. 30 words were presented over 3 testing sessions. 2-Modified Peterson Procedure three three letter words were voiced to him at a rate of 1 word/second. And then he was asked to count in ones from 1 as fast as e could. The end of each counting interval was signalled by the instructor saying "now". A new trial was begun when it KF could have recalled no more. There were 5 initial trials followed by 16 trials. 3- Proactive Interference test: Ten series each containing 10 pairs of letters were spoken to K.F. The two letters of a pair were separated by 1 second. and there was 5 seconds to recall the 2 letters before the next pair was presented. there was a minute gap between each series. 4-Recognition using a Probe Technique : The experimenter spoke a string of 5 letters to K.F. at a one per second rate, a tap marking

the end of the series. Three retrieval conditions were used. A, the experimenter presented a probe letter to K.F., who had to say whether or not it had appeared in the string.B, K.F. had to repeat the last letter of the string before being presented

with the probe letter. C there was a 20-sec. interval between the end of the

string and the presentation of the probe letter. Sets of 8 strings were used, 4 in which the

probe letter had not occurred and 4 in which each of the first 4 serial positions were probed.

Before each set K.F. was told which retrieval condition was to be tested. Twenty-seven sets

of each of the three conditions were presented to K.F. in a randomised design. 5- K.F.'s missing scan was tested for digit sets of size 3,4

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strengths of KF

Triangulation because Shall-ice and Warrington analysed this case study through various different experimental techniques. Provides information from unreachable situation AKA KF. This provides stimulating new research on aspects of cognitive psychology that was not considered before.

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limitations of KF

It is only one source do there is limited generalisability. These studies were mainly in a lab environment so there is low ecological validity. These studies also lacked mundane realism. Low levels of replicability because this data is only specific to KF

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Brewer and Treyens (1981) Aim

To Investigate whether people's memory for objects in a room (an office) is influenced by existing schemas about what to expect in an office.

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Brewer and Treyens (1981) Hypothesis

That the participants would be more likely to remember objects usually found in an office than those that are not.

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Who were the participants of the Brewer and Treyens study?

30 university students

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Brewer and Treyens (1981) Research design

Repeated measures (the first was the normal objects, the second was the abnormal) except both were done at once.

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Brewer and Treyens (1981) Procedure

Participants arrived individually to the laboratory and were asked to wait in an office containing objects (e.g.. desk, typewriter, coffee-pot, calendar). There were also objects that did not conform to the office schema (a skull, a piece of bark, a pair of pliers).After waiting for some time, participants were taken out of the office and asked to write down everything they could remember from the room.

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Brewer and Treyens (1981) Results

Most participants recalled the schematic objects (e.g. desk, typewriter). Some participants reported things that would be expected in a typical office but were not present in this one (e.g. telephone, books). Many participants also recalled the skull (unexpected object). The very unusual object resulted in better recall than predicted by schema theory.

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Advantages of Brewer and Treyens (1981)

The study confirms schema theory (and reconstructive memory). The participants were debriefed afterwards due to the use of deception and were not harmed.

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Limitations of Brewer and Treyens (1981)

This study was a laboratory experiment so it has issues of artificiality (ecological validity). The study used deception (participants were not told about the real purpose of the experiment). However the study couldn't have been done without this so it was justified. There is sample bias. University students were used as participants so it may be difficult to generalise the results.

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What was the aim of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

To find out if changing the verb used in a question about speed would have any effect on the speed estimates given by the participants

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What is the IV of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

The verb used

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What is the DV of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

The estimate of the speed given by the participant

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How many participants were used in the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

Experiment 1 - 45 student participants Experiment 2 - 150 student participants

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What was the methodology for Experiment 1 of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

45 participants shown seven clips of traffic accidents.

They were between 5 and 30 seconds long. After viewing they were given a questionnaire that first asked them to 'give an account of the accident you have just seen' They were then asked critical questions They were divided into five groups of nine and each group asked a different question

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What were the 5 verbs that Loftus and Palmer used for the different critical questions?

'Smashed', 'Collided', 'Bumped', 'Hit', 'Contacted'

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What were the average ratings of speeds for each condition in the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

'Smashed' - 40.8 mph - 'Collided' - 39.3 mph - 'Bumped' - 38.1 mph - 'Hit' - 34.0 mph - 'Contacted' - 31.8 mph

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What did Loftus and Palmer conclude from Experiment 1?

The wording of the question did have an effect on the estimate of speed - The more severe sounding verbs produced the higher estimates

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What was the methodology for Experiment 2 in the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

150 participants were shown a 1 minute film that contained a multiple car accident and were then questioned about it . First asked to describe the experiment in their own words and asked questions 3 groups of 50 participants, each asked a different question . A week later the subjects were asked 'Did you see any broken glass?' This critical question was one of 10 on the sheet - was actually no broken glass in the original film

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What was the DV for Experiment 2 in the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

Whether or not the participants recall seeing broken glass

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What were the 3 questions that the groups were asked in Experiment 2 of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

Group 1 - 'How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?' Group 2 - 'How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?' Group 3 - Subjects were not asked about the speed of the vehicles

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What were the findings in Experiment 2 of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

Verb: Yes No - Smashed 16 34

Hit 7 43 - Control Group 6 44

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What did Loftus and Palmer conclude from Experiment 2?

That questions can actually alter people's memory

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What are the strengths of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

Laboratory experiment - High level of control, Everybody was asked the same questions (Fair test)

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What are the weaknesses of the Loftus and Palmer experiment?

Laboratory experiment - Created an artificial setting (low ecological validity - hard to apply to everyday life) - Demand characteristics - Participants will be looking for clues as how to behave

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What type of data was collected in the Loftus and Palmer study?

Quantitative - speed estimates and numbers of people saying that they had seen broken glass

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Aim of Englich and Mussweiler (2001)

to investigate the whether anchoring bias could be involved in determining court room scenario

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participants of Englich and Mussweiler (2001)

44 German law students

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method of Englich and Mussweiler (2001)

given court room scenario and asked to give 12 month or 34 month sentence after demand of judges

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results of Englich and Mussweiler (2001)

if judge gave 34 month sentence, ppts added 8 months on. 12 months - same

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conclusion of Englich and Mussweiler (2001)

ppts relied upon judges experience as they did not have a lot themselves.

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Aim of Yuille and Cutshall

Investigate if leading questions would affect memory of eyewitnesses at a real crime scene

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procedure of Yuille and Cutshall

  • 13 eyewitnesses from a Vancouver shooting

  • Participants split into two groups - One group was asked if there was 'a' broken headlight the other was asked if they saw 'the' broken headlight; there was no headlight- One group was asked if they saw 'a' yellow panel and the other was asked if they saw 'the' yellow panel; there was not yellow panel- Asked to rate their stress level from 1-7 during the shooting

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IV of Yuille and Cutshall

leading questions

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DV of Yuille and Cutshall

participants response

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results of Yuille and Cutshall

  • recalled large amount of accurate detail- 79-84% reports were accurate
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conclusion of Yuille and Cutshall

didn't make errors because of the leading questions - contradicts Loftus and Palmer (1974)- could be the lack of emotional response to the video that was shown in Loftus and Palmer- safety was threatened in this study, can't be compared to Loftus and Palmer

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strengths of Yuille and Cutshall

  • Field study, high ecological validity- Archival evidence to confirm accuracy of results
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weaknesses of Yuille and Cutshall

  • Not replicable- Not generalizable- Researcher bias since results qualitative
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Neisser and Harsch (1992) AIM

investigate the extent to which memory for a shocking event (the Challenger disaster) would be accurate after a period of time.

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Neisser and Harsch (1992) METHOD

questionnaire and interview

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Neisser and Harsch (1992) PROCEDURE

  • 106 students in an introductory psychology class were asked to write a description of how they had heard about the news- They were also asked to answer 7 questions related to where they were, what they were doing, etc. and the emotions they experienced at the time. - Experiment took place less than 24 hours after the disaster. - Two and a half years later, 44 of the original students answered the questionnaire. - They were also asked to rate how confident they were of the accuracy of their memory on a scale from 1 to 5.- The researchers also performed a semi-structured interview to test whether participants could remember what they had written previously.
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Neisser and Harsch (1992) RESULTS

  • Only 11 participants out of the 44 remembered that they had filled out the questionnaire before.- While participants were confident that they remembered the event correctly both times, they could not explain the discrepancies between the first and second accounts.
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Neisser and Harsch (1992) CONCLUSION

Challenge the predictions of the FM theory and also question the reliability of memory in general.

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Neisser and Harsch (1992) STRENGTHS

Natural environment → high ecological validity

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Neisser and Harsch (1992) LIMITATIONS

  • Psychology students therefore they may have been aware of the theory already → demand characteristics, etc. - The news events may not have been personally traumatic, hence, low degree of emotional arousal → does not test the theory effectively- Questionnaire lacks accuracy- Also it is uncertain whether the information came from the participants' own memories, or if their recollection was influenced by the repeated coverage on media.
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Aim of Sharot et al

To determine the role of biological factors on flashbulb memories

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IV of Sharot et al

Whether the participants were shown summer or September in conjunction with the other words

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DV of Sharot et al

Brain activity

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Participants of Sharot et al

24 people who were in New York during the 9/11 attacks

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Research design of Sharot et al

Case study

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Procedure of Sharot et al

The study was conducted three years after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in Manhattan. Participants were put in an fMRI machine and whilst in the scanner they were presented with word cues on the screen alongside the word summer or September in order to get the participant to link the words to either the summer holidays or the 9/11 attack. Participants brains were scanned and recorded while they were recalling events. The memories of personal events from the summer were used as a baseline of brain activity for evaluating the nature of the 9/11 attacks. Afterwards, participants were asked to rate their memories for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy and arousal. They were also asked to write down their personal memories.

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Results of Sharot et al

Sharot and her team found that the activation of the amygdala for the participants who were downtown was higher when they recalled memories of the terrorist attack than when they recalled events from the preceding summer, whereas those participants who were further away from the event had equal levels of response in the amygdala when recalling both events. The strength of amygdala activation at retrieval was shown to correlate with flashbulb memories. These results suggest that close personal experience may be critical in engaging the neural mechanisms that produce the vivid memories characteristic of flashbulb memory.

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Conclusion of Sharot et al

The study is correlational in nature and does not establish a cause and effect relationship. The experiment is highly artificial - and thus low in ecological validity. The sample size is small and culturally biased. Research indicates that individualistic cultures are more likely to have flashbulb memories than collectivistic cultures. This makes the findings difficult to generalise to the world population as a whole. The results were partly self reported, which allows for error in the results. However, the use of more than one method of data collection is triangulation which increases the validity of the results.