AP Psychology Unit 2a (Biological Factors)

Biological psychology

A branch of psychology that studies the relationship between biological processes and psychological phenomena.

Neuron

The fundamental building blocks of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body.

Dendrite

A short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.

Axon

The long threadlike part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells.

Myelin sheath

Fatty, insulating layer that wraps around nerve fibers (axons) in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Action potential

A rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a response or sensation, or the minimum change in a stimulus that can be detected.

Synapse

A specialized junction between two neurons or between a neuron and another target cell, such as a muscle or gland.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons (nerve cells) in the brain and throughout the nervous system.

Acetycholine (ACh)

A crucial neurotransmitter that functions in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, impacting muscle control, memory formation, learning, attention, and arousal.

Endorphins

Naturally produced substances in the body that act like internal opioids, binding to opioid receptors to reduce pain, induce feelings of well-being, and contribute to pleasure.

Nervous system

The body's complex communication network, composed of neurons and nerves, that coordinates thoughts, emotions, and behaviors by processing sensory information and transmitting signals between the brain and the rest of the body

Central nervous system

The primary control and processing center of the body, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

The network of nerves, ganglia, and sensory organs located outside the brain and spinal cord, serving as a crucial communication link between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the body's muscles, glands, and internal organs.

Nerves

The anatomical structures—bundles of fibers that transmit electrical impulses—that connect the brain and spinal cord to the body's tissues and organs, serving as communication lines for transmitting information and coordinating actions

Sensory neurons

Specialized nerve cells that detect and transmit sensory information from the body to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). 

Motor neurons

Cells in the brain and spinal cord that allow us to move, speak, swallow and breathe by sending commands from the brain to the muscles that carry out these functions.

Interneurons

Specialized nerve cells in the central nervous system that act as the regulators of neural activity

Somatic nervous system

A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements and sensory functions.

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.

Sympathetic nervous system

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that plays a crucial role in preparing the body for stressful or dangerous situations, commonly known as the "fight or flight" response

Parasympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, promoting relaxation and "rest and digest" activities

Reflex

An involuntary, automatic, and nearly instantaneous response to a stimulus.

Neural networks

Interconnected nodes (neurons) that process and transmit information in the brain

Endocrine system

The glands and organs that produce hormones, which act as chemical messengers regulating mood, behavior, stress responses, growth, and other bodily functions

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions and processes

Adrenal glands

Endocrine glands atop the kidneys that secrete hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, playing a crucial role in regulating stress responses, including the "fight-or-flight" response, and influencing mood, memory, and various bodily functions

Pituitary gland

A small, pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions and hormones.

Lesion

An area of brain tissue that has been damaged or destroyed

Electroencephalogram

A non-invasive technique that records the brain's electrical activity through small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to the scalp

Positron emission tomography scan

A brain imaging technique that visualizes and measures brain activity and function using radioactive tracers

Magnetic resonance imaging

Provides detailed anatomical images of the brain, detecting structural abnormalities such as tumors, strokes, and injuries. 

Functional MRI

A non-invasive neuroimaging technique used in psychology to map brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow and oxygenation

Brainstem

The part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and controls fundamental, involuntary life-sustaining functions like breathing, heart rate, consciousness, and sleep

Medulla

A vital part of the brainstem that plays crucial roles in various physiological and psychological functions

Reticular formation

A network of interconnected neurons located in the brainstem

Thalamus

A critical brain structure acting as a primary relay and processing center for sensory, motor, and other information, directing it to various areas of the cerebral cortex

Cerebellum

A part of the brain located at the back of the head, below the cerebrum. It plays a crucial role in motor coordination, balance, and posture. 

Limbic system

A complex set of brain structures primarily involved in emotion, motivation, memory, and behavior

Amygdala

A small, almond-shaped structure located in the temporal lobes of the brain that is primarily responsible for processing emotions, particularly fear, and plays a key role in the fight-or-flight response

Hypothalamus

A small region of the brain located in the diencephalon, below the thalamus

Cerebral cortex

The wrinkled, outer layer of the cerebrum responsible for complex cognitive functions like consciousness, memory, language, perception, and the initiation of voluntary movements

Glial cells

Non-neuronal cells within the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal lobes

The large, front sections of each cerebral hemisphere, primarily responsible for executive functions like planning, decision-making, problem-solving, voluntary movement, and social behavior

Parietal lobes

A pair of brain regions located behind the frontal lobes that are crucial for processing sensory information, including touch, pain, temperature, and pressure, and for understanding spatial relationships and visuospatial information

Occipital lobes

The part of the brain located at the back of the head, primarily responsible for processing and interpreting visual information from the eyes, including color, shape, motion, and depth perception

Temporal lobes

One of the four major lobes of the brain, located beneath the brain's lateral fissure. Memory: The temporal lobe is essential for storing and retrieving declarative memories, such as facts, events, and personal experiences

Motor cortex

The region of the brain's frontal lobe that plans, controls, and executes voluntary movements

Sensory cortex

The brain's primary regions responsible for receiving, processing, and interpreting sensory information from the body and the environment, including touch, sight, hearing, taste, and smell

Association areas

Regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate sensory and motor information to perform higher-order cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, and language

Aphasia

A neurological disorder that impairs a person's ability to understand, produce, or use language

Broca’s area

A region in the left frontal lobe of the brain crucial for language production, specifically the ability to form spoken and written words and construct coherent sentences

Wernicke’s area

A region in the posterior superior temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere (typically the left) that is crucial for language comprehension, both spoken and written

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experiences, learning, and environmental factors

Corpus callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain

Split brain

A medical condition where the corpus callosum, the thick band of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, is surgically severed or damaged. 

Myasthenia gravis

A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder that causes muscle weakness

Multiple sclerosis

A condition of the central nervous system that impacts psychological well-being through symptoms like fatigue, cognitive impairment, and mood changes, which are rooted in the physical damage to nerve myelin

Eugenics

Eugenics is the discredited and immoral practice of using selective breeding to improve the human species, and it is closely intertwined with the history of psychology.