Unit 2 Anatomy and Physiology First Semester

Function of the Skeletal System

hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells because of bone marrow

Function of Integmentary System

sensation from receptors such as free nerve endings, Meissner’s, and pacinian Corpuscles

2nd degree burn

damages dermis and epidermis, blistering

1st degree burns

damages epidermis, redness

3rd degree burns

dermis, epidermis, and hypodermis have all been burned through

Melanin

Enzyme Tyronase helps produce melanin

All humans have the same number of melanocytes

; the difference is in melanin production amount.

Melanocytes

pigment-producing cells in the stratum basale.

Albinism

not caused by lack of melanocytes but by lack of enzyme (tyrosinase) → no melanin production.

Fingerprints

epidermal ridges that have sweat pores that result in fingerprints

Shivering

involuntary contraction of skeletal muscle

Sweating Stimulus

body temperature increases

Sweating Receptor

Thermoreceptors in the brain detect the increased body temperature

Sweating Control Center

The heat-loss center in the hypothalamus of the brain receives the signal

Sweating Effector

Response/neurons stimulate sweating and dilation of blood vessels in the skin to release heat

Sweating Return to Normal Range

Heat-loss center stops the response when body temperature returns to normal

Calluses Trigger

Chronic and excessive pressure or friction stimulates the skin.

Calluses Cellular response

This stimulation activates the basal cells in the stratum basale layer of the epidermis.

Hyperproliferation

The basal cells begin to divide more often, a process called hyperproliferation.

Stratum corneum thickening

The new cells move up through the layers of the epidermis, flattening and accumulating keratin. This leads to a thickening of the outermost layer, the stratum corneum.

Protective function

The resulting hardened, thickened pad of dead skin cells forms a protective barrier, preventing damage like blisters and injury to the deeper skin layers and soft tissues.

Erythema

increased blood flow to remove heat during injury

Cyanosis

slow amounts of oxygen, low red blood cell count, unable to bind oxygen

Carotene

orange pigment ingested accumulates in stratum corneum, orange and yellow

Pallor

low blood flow to remove heat

Hemoglobin

iron containing protein; red color

Skin cancer is

when cancerous cells metastasize in the DNA

Thick Skin

contains all 5 strata and releases sweat, very thick stratum corneum

Thin Skin

no stratum lucidum and thinner stratum corneum, has hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands that release sebum

Inner Medulla

thick hairs, soft keratin

Middle Cortex

layered keratinocytes with hard keratin

Outer Cuticle

single layer of keratinocytes with hard keratin

Nail Body

visible portion

Nail root

under the skin

Nail Matrix

actively dividing cells

Proximal Nail fold

covers root

Eponychium

distal part of proximal nail fold

Tool used to measure severity of the burn?

degree of burns

Extent of Burns

Rule of nines

Flat Bone

protective shields for vital internal organs like the brain, heart, and lungs, and provide broad surfaces for muscles and tendons to attach to

Sesamoid

patella, embedded in the tendon, purpose

Irregular

can be a sesamoid bone, hyoid

Short Bone

provide support, stability, and limited movement in various joints. 

Long Bone

support body weight, provide leverage for movement, and offer structure to the skeletal system

Hyoid Bone

involved in swallowing and speech, articulates with temporal bone and the larynx

Axial Skelton

Rib Cage, Vertebral Column, and skull

Cervical

concave

Lumbar

convex

Sacral

concave

Lumbosacral Junction

convex

Vertebral Outliers C1, C2, why?

structured for mobility, not weight-bearing

Lordosis

”swayback”, exaggerated cervical and lumbar curvatures

Antloaxial Joint

The C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) vertebrae form a complex joint that allows the skull to pivot and rotate

Hyperlordosis

adults with extra weight, pregnant women

Scoliosis

c or s shaped curvatures

Kyphosis

”humpback” appearance, exaggerated thoracic curvature

Fontanelles

Allow skull compression during birth and brain growth.

Soft spots in infant skulls (fibrous connective tissue)

Last 2-3 months

Female Greater Pelvis

wide , anterior superior iliac spines are far apart with flared iliac crests

Coccyx and Sacrum

posterior and is more moveable

Female Inlet and Outlet

wide and oval

Female Acetabula

far apart and pointed anteriorly

Pubic Arch

90-100

Female Ischial Tuberosities

point laterally

Male Greater Pelvis

Narrow, anterior superior iliac spines are close together and straight

Male Coccyx and Sacrum

Longer and narrower

Inlet and outlet

narrow and heart shaped

Male Acetabula

close together and point laterally

Pubic Arch

60-70

male Ischial Tuberosities

point medially

Cervical

transverse processes-passage for vertebral arteries and veins, unique longispinous process

Axis

Dens that fits the atlas’s vertebral foramen forming the atlantoaxial joint

Atlas

supports

Thoracic Vertebrae

superior and inferior costal facets that provide points of articulation for ribs

Lumbar

largest and heaviest to bear weight, has pedicles and lamina

Sacral Vertebrae fuse

18-30

Coccygeal

4 vertebrae that fuse at age 25

Red marrow

site of blood cell formation.

Yellow marrow 

stores fat; found in medullary cavities of long bones.

Organic Tissue

provide flexibility and structure through molecules like collagen and proteins

Inorganic Tissue

hardness and rigidity, such as the mineral hydroxyapatite in bone.

Compact Bone

canniculi, circumferential lamella, and perforating canals

Spongy Bone

Trabeculae

Endochondral Ossification

Long Bones

Step one of Endochondral Ossification

Chondrocytes make hyaline cartilage model

Step two of Endochondral Ossification

Bone collar forms

Step three of Endochondral Ossification

Primary ossification center in the diaphyses of a long bone Blood Vessels and Nerves enter via nutrient foramen

Step four of Endochondral Ossification

Secondary ossification center at epiphyseal plate

Step five of Endochondral Ossification

Cartilage remains in epiphyseal growth plate and articular cartilage

Intramembranous Ossification

Flat Bones

Step One of Intramembranous Ossification

Primary ossification center (osteoblasts)

Step two of Intramembranous Ossification

Spincules form (Baby trabeculae) and surround blood vessels

Step three of Intramembranous Ossification

Spongy bone forms

Step four of Intramembranous Ossification

Spongy bone outside (periosteum) edges, Compact bone-outer dense irregular connective tissue membrane, Bones spread outwards, After birth meet at suture and close fontanels

Step one of Low blood Ca²⁺

triggers PTH (parathyroid hormone):

Step two of Low blood Ca²⁺

Stimulates osteoclasts

Step four of Low blood Ca²⁺

raises blood Ca²⁺.

Step one High blood Ca²⁺

triggers calcitonin (thyroid)

Step Two High blood Ca²⁺

Inhibits osteoclasts

Step three High blood Ca²⁺

lowers blood Ca²⁺.