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Homeostasis
Maintaining internal balance in the body
Chemical messengers
Substances like hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines that transmit signals in the body
Neuroendocrine response
Body's reaction to stress involving both nervous and endocrine systems
Age-related changes
Alterations in endocrine function due to aging
Endocrine system functions
Regulating metabolism, growth, reproduction, circadian rhythms, and muscle activity
Paracrine signaling
Communication between nearby cells using chemical messengers
Endocrine signaling
Communication over long distances via hormones in the bloodstream
Hormones vs neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers for endocrine vs nervous systems
Endocrine glands
Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
Exocrine glands
Release substances through ducts to external environment or body cavities
Pancreas
Gland with both endocrine (insulin) and exocrine (digestive enzymes) functions
Hormone secretion stimulation
Triggered by nerve impulses or changes in critical ion levels
Parathyroid hormone
Regulates blood calcium levels by affecting bone resorption and calcium release
Trophic hormones
Stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones
Hypothalamus
Brain region connecting nervous and endocrine systems, controls pituitary gland
Anterior pituitary
Produces and releases hormones in response to hypothalamic signals
Posterior pituitary
Stores and releases hormones like oxytocin and ADH
Growth hormone (GH)
Regulates growth, cell proliferation, and tissue regeneration
Thyroid regulation cascade
Pathway involving hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and thyroid gland to regulate thyroid hormones
Calcium regulation
Controlled by parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and calcitonin for nerve, muscle, and clotting functions
Oxytocin
Hormone stimulating uterine contractions and lactation during childbirth
Positive feedback loop
Mechanism amplifying oxytocin release during childbirth, then stopping after delivery
ADH (Anti-diuretic hormone)
Regulates fluid balance by controlling water reabsorption in the kidneys
Type II Diabetes
Condition of insulin resistance leading to high blood sugar levels
Stress response (HPA axis)
Involves hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal cortex to regulate cortisol release in stress situations
Sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis
Part of the ANS releasing adrenaline for immediate stress response, increasing heart rate and energy.
Neuroendocrine stress response
Initiates fight-or-flight response by providing glucose & oxygen to vital organs, inhibiting non-essential functions.
Stress response systems comparison
Analyzes stress effects on bodily systems.
Impact of stress
Weakens function, increases illness susceptibility, impairs concentration, memory, and decision-making.
Age-related changes to the endocrine system
Includes decreased growth hormone, thyroid hormones, increased PTH, and reduced adrenal cortex function.
Abdominal regions
Identifies anatomical regions and organs of the digestive system.
Digestive system processes
Includes ingestion, secretion, mixing, absorption, defecation, and excretion.
Layers of the digestive tract
Comprise mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa for support, protection, and movement.
Mouth, tongue, teeth & saliva
Involve mechanical digestion, taste, chewing, swallowing, and saliva's role in moistening and cleaning.
Stomach & gastric juice
Contracts to mix acids and enzymes for chemical digestion, aided by hydrochloric acid, mucous, and enzymes.
Small & large intestines
Small intestine for digestion & absorption, large intestine for water absorption, vitamin production, and waste formation.
Accessory organs of digestion - liver
Produces bile for fat digestion, detoxifies, metabolizes nutrients, and performs first-pass metabolism of drugs.
Bile
Aids fat digestion by emulsifying fats, enhancing enzyme action, and facilitating absorption in the small intestine.
Nervous system control of GI tract
Parasympathetic control increases activity and secretion, while sympathetic control decreases activity and secretion.
Vagus Nerve (X)
Sends signals for stomach acid production and food movement, influenced by food cues and stretch receptors.
Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
Controls stomach functions, affected by stress, anxiety, and other bodily signals.
Peristalsis
Wave-like muscle contractions moving contents in the digestive tract
Defaecation Reflex
Controls elimination of feces; initiated by rectal stretch receptors
Constipation
Difficulty in passing stools, leading to infrequent or painful bowel movements
Diarrhoea
Frequent loose or watery stools, often caused by infection or dietary issues
Neurogenic Bowel Dysfunction
Disruption of bowel control due to spinal cord injury
Age-related Changes in GI
Decreased function in taste, smell, digestion, motility, neural, & hormonal control
Nutrients
Substances essential for growth, energy, and overall health
Lipids
Fats crucial for energy, cell structure, and hormone production
Minerals & Vitamins
Micronutrients vital for various bodily functions and health
Anabolism
Building up molecules by linking monomers into polymers
Catabolism
Breaking down molecules from polymers to monomers, releasing energy
Carbohydrate Digestion
Process of breaking down complex carbs into monosaccharides for absorption
Lipid Digestion
Breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol for absorption
Chylomicrons
Transport triglycerides from intestines to cells
Lipoproteins
Transporters for lipids & cholesterol in the bloodstream
Cholesterol
Fat-like substance crucial for cell function, produced in the liver
Atherosclerosis
Build-up of lipids and calcium in arteries, leading to narrowed blood vessels
Proteins
Essential for muscle, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, and other bodily functions
Protein Digestion
Process of breaking down proteins into amino acids for absorption and use
Vitamins & Minerals
Micronutrients vital for bodily functions, health, and disease prevention
Vitamin A
Supports vision, immune function, and cell differentiation
Vitamin B complex
Group of B vitamins supporting energy metabolism, nervous system, and DNA synthesis
Vitamin C
Antioxidant vital for immune function and collagen synthesis
Vitamin D
Essential for calcium absorption, bone health, and immune function
Vitamin E
Antioxidant protecting cells and supporting immune function
Vitamin K
Critical for blood clotting and bone health
Calcium
Necessary for bone formation, muscle function, and nerve transmission
Iron
Essential for oxygen transport and energy metabolism in the blood
Magnesium
Important for muscle function, blood sugar regulation, and bone health
Potassium
Key for muscle contraction, nerve function, and fluid balance
Zinc
Required for immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and taste perception
Negative feedback loop
Inhibition or slowing down of a process to maintain balance
Thermoregulation
Regulation of body temperature
Blood Glucose Control
Maintenance of stable blood sugar levels
Blood Pressure
Regulation of the force of blood against the blood vessel walls
Osmoregulation
Control of water and solute balance in the body
Skeletal System
Framework of bones providing support, protection, and movement
Homeostatic imbalances: Arthritis
Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis affecting joints
Muscle Tone
Slight tension in resting muscles for quick response and posture maintenance
Atrophy
Muscle wasting
Hypertrophy
Increase in muscle fiber diameter
Antimicrobial drugs
Compounds killing or inhibiting microorganism growth
Selective Toxicity
Ability to target microbes without harming host cells
Antibiotic Resistance
Microorganisms becoming resistant to previously effective medicines
Broad Spectrum
Kills wide range of bacteria, including normal flora
Narrow Spectrum
Effective against specific group of pathogens
Pharmacology
Study of drug uses, effects, and modes of action
Pharmacokinetics
Drug movement within the body
Pharmacodynamics
Effects and mechanisms of drug action
