Unit 3: Micro-level Approaches

Agency-structure continuum

tool in the social sciences for generating explanations for social sciences

it will privilege explanations based on the role, choices, volition, and behavior of the actor/agent; ignores the role of structure and its constraints on the actor's ability to make choices

Rational Choice Theory

1. the individual/group/nation-state/firm is the basic agent in society

2. The goals, atl, and consequences available to the agent

3. They will choose the option that gives the highest expected utility

- unitary actor, autogenous, consistent/stable preferences

Social Identity Theory

- Critique of rational choice theory and asks where actors' preferences come from

SIT = social/identity environment --> preferences --> behavior

- dynamic construct, context matters, identity salience

Social identity

def. the part of an individual's self concept which derives from knowledge of group membership together with the emotional significance attached to that membership

Identity salience

the weight that we are giving to a social identity at any one time, think of a rolodex

Framing Theory

self/actor is an empty vessel subject to outside influence

- when someone sends a communication, they are embedding a frame in that communication

Message/communication --> preferences (not stable, as a consequence) --> behavior

* apathetic people or people without frames are more susceptible to framing

Frame in Thought

new thought and frame after being presented with a communication

Identity Theory

Origin: sociology

Identity is: relatively stable, role specific that informs expectations and understanding about self and others; intersubjective (meaning others help me figure out my identity)

Primordial identity

identity that one is born with, unchanging

Socially constructed identity

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Social Identity Theory: Main Issue 1

Psychological processes

- Social categorization --> comparison and identification

- Creation of the "in" and "out" groups --> leading us to believe and behave believing that we are better than others

Social Identity Theory: Main Issue 2

Identity management strategies ("impression management")

- Individual mobility - is it socially acceptable to be in this group?

- Social creativity - how do change myself to be more wanted

- Social competition - diminish other groups

Social Identity Theory: Main Issue 3

Social structure characteristics

Equivalency framing

a frame that is equivalent to another, only phrased differently; different pov

Framing effect

outcome, when a frame in communication changes one's frame in thought

Frame moderator

- Helps to defend against or resist a framing effect

1. Source of the communication

2. One's knowledge/information on an issue

3. Ideology or belief system

Priming

to make a frame more significant/accessible in our minds at any given time

Issue specific frame

taking a specific case

Generic frame

more broad on a specific issue

Social Movement Theory

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Social Movement Theory Pillars

1. Resource mobilization

2. Political opportunity structure

3. Cognitive processes (e.g. framing)

Collective Action Problem/Free rider problem

problem where individual interests differ from group interests; not willing to sacrifice one's benefits for the greater good

Selective incentives

minor inducement to somebody to overcome the collective action problem (e.g. "I Voted" sticker)

What divides people in society? (Social movement)

1. "Cleavage" to refer to significant societal divides

2. Materialist v. Post-Materialist issues

3. Relative deprivation

Cleavage Types:

- Center-periphery - center of power in the country's experience v. that of people on the sidelines

- Religious - India with muslims and hindus

- Urban-rural

- Social class

Materialist v. Post-materilaist issues

materialist issues - involving money and access to money

post-materialist issues - issues by money that create social and political conflict (e.g. civil rights, social justice, animal rights, gender)

* The West is fighting post-materialist issues while the global South is still dealing with materialist issues

Relative deprivation

concern based on a sense of deprivation or inequality

- in relation to others

- in relation to their expectations

- in relation to the past

Political people

a wide variety of human associations, groups, or communities but not all such groups; political people is an adversary to other groups (in/out groups)

Social movement theory DVs

1. Sustained activism/anomic behavior

2. Social movement --> Social movement organization (formalized)

3. Movement success

Anomic groups

spontaneously emerges and quickly dissipates (no membership, roster, or leadership structure)

Institutional group

groups that have their own issues, seperate from trying to change collective action through lobbying and persuasion (e.g. Rhodes College. Apple, democratic party)

Associational group

group formed for lobbying the government, secure political interests (e.g. AARP, AIPAC, PhRma, NRA)

Three pillars of SMT

1. Resource mobilization

2. Political opportunity structure

3. Cognitive processes

Resource mobilization

- agent-based actors/actor-centered approach

- 5 types of resources (the greater the resources, the greater the likelihood of success)

5 types of resources

1. Material resources - fungible, cash

2. Human resources - members, volunteers, leaders

3. Moral resources - conviction, willingness to sacrifice, solidarity

4. Social/organizational resources - social media, ability to mobilize

5. Cultural resources - culture, history, know-how/skill/ability of leaders (culture within a movement)

Political opportunity structure

structural explanation (depends on the opportunity/timing of finding weaknesses in structures to come in and change)

1. Opportunity - timing, structures limit the choices available for agents/more available to be penetrated and changed

2. Structure - regime, government, or existing institutions (insiders) which we seek to change or persuade

Dimensions of the opportunity structure

1. Openness of the political system or institutions to penetration from outsiders

2. State capacity to push back

3. The stability of political alignment

4. Availability of influential elites/elite allies (hard/soft liners)

5. Elite turnover

6. Division among elites (soft liner)

Cognitive processes

"ideational pillar" - ideas and the role of ideas, abstract

Cognitive liberation

1. Individuals recognize that it is time for change

2. Individuals recognize that by working together, change can be accomplished; overcoming the collective action problem

Cognition vs. Affect

- role of knowing what the issues are, as well as how we feel about them

- knowing v. feeling

Theories of Revolution

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Values Systems Approach

Revolution occurs when the values of society are no longer in line with the realities of society

Key conditions for revolution

1. Societal disequilibrium

2. Accelerators

3. Elite intransigence

Societal disequilibrium

societies are "homeostatic" (operate in equilibrium); therefore, when the realities of society do not match the values, the equilibrium is at risk

- Values of society: politics, culture, art, economy, religion, etc.

Accelerators

3 kinds:

1. Weakness/disarray in the incumbent government - corrupt, weak, incapable

2. Confidence of the revolutionaries that might overpower the regime/elite/gov't

3. Strategic actions that revolutionaries make against the incumbent forces

Elite intransigence

elites are unwilling to compromise leading to revolution

Appregate Physiological Approach

Revolution occurs in the minds of the masses

Concepts:

1. Aggregate psychological frustration

2. J-curve hypothesis - over time, expectations stray from the realities

Mobilization approach

Key concept:

1. multiple sovereignty - citizens recognize that the state has a monopoly on the use of force, we all asquiesnce, givig the state legitimacy --> challenger gains legitiacy displaying a case of multiple sovereignty as the nation does not know who the leader should be

Internal Sovereignty

the state/government has a monopoly on the use of force against citizens

External Sovereignty

legal idea that no state can legally intervene in the affairs of another state

Realism

- positive view of the world (how things are)

- realists do not like conflict but expect it

- rationalist approach - assumes that actors have goals so they will act to reach those

Realist assumptions

Groupism - politics take place with and between groups

Egoism - when individuals/groups act politically, they are driven by narrow self-interest

Anarchy - the absence of an international government

Individual assumptions (Realism)

- self-interested, preoccupied with their own well-being in competitive situations

- prone to conflict

Nation-state assumptions (Realism)

- primary unit of analysis

- they are unitary actors, functionally similar, all equal in a formal sense

- power is a key factor that differentiates states

Strands of realist thought

Classical realism - historical, individual based

Neoclassical realism - brings nation-state more into analysis

Strategic realism - emphasizes the strategies of actors

Structural realism

Structural realism (Neorealism)

regime type, culture, history, etc. do not matter; only power matters

Balance of power/polarity/distribution of power

how is power spread/distributed amongst the international system; help determine when does conflict occur

- power - independent variable

- conflict - dependent variable

Why do states want power?

Security, instrumental power (to get other things), soft power (reputation, influence, persuasion, leadership)

How much power is enough?

Offensive realism

Defensive realism

What causes great power war?

1. Balance of power --> stability

2. Changes in the distribution of power

3. Gap in power among great powers

4. Offense/Defense balance / Political opportunity structure

Balance of power

Bi-polar - most likely to head to stability

Multipolar - least likely to provide stability

Offense/Defense balance / Political Opportunity Structure

def. the conditions of the international system at any given time, do they favor conquering another territory or defending one's own?

Offensive realism

maximize power, pursue hegemony (def. system dominated by one power)

Defensive realism

states should maximize security

System

- an aggregate of diverse entities

- Unified by regular interaction

- According to some form of control

- E.g. international system

Offensive realism (Neorealism)

- maximize power, pursue hegemony

- offense in favored on the self-help system

- Criticism: ignores proxy wars, only focuses on great power wars

Defensive realism (Neorealism)

- Security dilemma

- Offense/defense balance favors the defense

- Maximize security, do not pursue hegemony in fear of blowback (aka provoke others to attack you or form alliances against your interests)

Security dilemma

byproduct of our anarchic system, an increase in one state's power leads to the (mis)perception of other states that their power has decreased leading to these states attempting to maximize their power as well --> trigger to arms race

Balance of power definitions

1. Description of polarity (where power is distributed across the international system)

2. Prediction of alliance behavior

- Balancing behavior - countries are aligning against the great power

- Bandwagoning behavior - smaller, weaker countries align with great power for the benefit of their security

3. Macro-level theory of conflict

Trinity of beliefs

1. When power is balanced, peace/stability is likely to ensue (power checks power); power creates deterrence

2. Imbalance of power is conductive to conflict (conflict is likely to occur when power is not balanced in a system)

3. Aggressor is likely to be the stronger power (confidence that they can win, deterrence of the lesser powers)