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Literal rule
Words get their plain, ordinary dictionary meaning — even if absurd.
Golden rule
Start literal, but modify the meaning to avoid an absurd/repugnant result.
Golden — NARROW version
Words have two meanings → pick the sensible one.
Golden — WIDE version
Words have one meaning → court modifies it to avoid absurdity.
Mischief rule
Interpret the Act so it cures the gap ('mischief') it was passed to fix.
Heydon's 4 questions
① Law before? ② Mischief? ③ Remedy? ④ True reason?
Purposive approach
Look beyond the words to Parliament's purpose — give effect to the 'true intention of the legislature.'