Trade Unions 1865-1992

American Industrial Revolution

- Reached America by 1800s and

- boom after the Civil War

- Economy became based around factory system,

- increased immigration from Ireland and Germany

Closed Shop

- a factory dominated by one trade union which workers are obligated to belong to

- admitted only skilled tradesmen

Open Shop

- a factory with a labour agreement under which employees are free to join any union or no union

- admitted both skilled and unskilled workers

Contract System

- employment of workers who could be laid off during slack periods

Existing Rights of Workers in 1865

- small unions exculsivley for skilled workers

- strength came from the fact they were closed shop

- opposed attempts to reduce wages and provided sickness benefits for members

- William H. Slyvis was the first to promote the idea of working class solidarity (president of the Iron Moulders International Union)

Lack of Rights for Workers in 1865

- semi and unskilled workers excluded from unionisation

- NLU campaigned for 8hr days, restrictions on immigration and end of convict labour

- NLU promoted the rights of working women however AA women were unable to join the NLU

- 1/3 of unskilled workers were women

- NLU went into decline after Slyvis' death in 1869

National Labor Union

- established by William H Sylvis in 1866

- by 1868 NLU had 300,000 members accross the USA

- failed Iron Moulders Strike in 1866/67 led Sylvis to realise that the only way labour rights could be established was through poltical reform

Impact of Industrialisation on the rights of workers

• Factory system growth ↑ demand for unskilled workers

• Contract system used to hire unskilled labor temporarily

• Unskilled workers earned only 1/3 of skilled workers’ wages

• All workers faced 12-hour days in dangerous, unhealthy conditions

• Children as young as 8 worked in cotton mills and coal mines

Working Conditions in 1865

• Coal miners often developed lung disease from heavy dust exposure

• In 1889, about 2,000 railway workers died in accidents

• Employers resisted health and safety improvements because of costs

• Many workers were disabled by accidents and received very little support from employers

Unions pre-1914

- Knights of Labor

- American Federation of Labor

- Industrial Workers of the World

Knights of Labor

• Founded by Uriah Smith Stephens; led by Terence Powderly from 1879

• Goal: Unite skilled and unskilled workers

• Welcomed women and removed racial barriers

• Demands: 8-hour workday, equal pay for women, and end to child labor

• Opposed strikes; focused on legislative reform instead

• Reputation ruined by the Haymarket Affair → support sharply declined

American Federation of Labor

• Founded by Samuel Gompers, replaced the Knights of Labor

• Supported boycotts and strikes as tactics

• By 1914, had 2 million members; by 1924, the only major national trade union federation left

• Worked with some of the most influential US businessmen, such as the Vanderbilt family

• Advocated workers’ rights to mediation and conciliation

Industrial Workers of the World

• Militant union with a violent reputation

• Defended poor, illiterate workers, including immigrants

• Membership peaked at 100,000 in 1923

• Faced constant harassment, arrests, and persecution

• Leadership divided in 1924, weakening the union

• Union’s strength broke after internal splits and external pressure

The Haymarket Affair

- riot that took place in Chicago in 1886

- KoL concerned with the length of the working day and working conditions

- several workers were killed by Chicago police in May 1886

- rally took place to protest this brutality

- a bomb was thrown into the crowd killing 7 police and wounding 5 civilians

- 8 men convicted, 5 given death penalty

- public backlash against the KoL

Impact of the Haymarket Affair on union failure

• Public saw unions as violent and dangerous after the bombing → loss of support

• Many involved were new immigrants, increasing xenophobia and suspicion

• Created distrust between old and new immigrant groups → weakened worker unity

• Employers exploited racial and ethnic divisions to divide the workforce

Why did union action usually fail 1865-1914?

• Divided Workforce

  • Workers split by race, ethnicity, skill level, and immigration status

  • Employers exploited these divisions to prevent unity

• Laissez-Faire Capitalism & Big Business

  • Minimal government intervention allowed employers to resist unions

  • Businesses had vast economic power to crush strikes and control labor

• The Supreme Court

  • Often ruled against unions and strikes

  • Used laws like the Sherman Antitrust Act to label unions as conspiracies, limiting their power

The Divided Workforce 1865-1914

• Poor immigrant and female workers often accepted low pay and poor conditions, angering American-born workers who blamed them for lowering wages and weakening unions

• After slavery ended, African Americans joined the workforce but faced hostility and suspicion from white workers

• Employers exploited divisions by hiring African American workers as strikebreakers to undermine strikes

• Many workers avoided joining unions because they disapproved of union tactics, like intimidation and strikes

Laissez faire capitalism and big business

• Government followed a laissez-faire policy, avoiding interference in business

• Led to monopolies controlled by a few powerful capitalists

• Employers resisted union organisation and worker demands

• Hired labour spies to monitor and break up union activity

• Use of armed forces against striking workers was common

To what extent did the Supreme Court support workers rights 1865-1914?

• Mostly supported employers over workers

• Court injunctions used after 1864 to legally break strikes

• In Lochner v. New York (1905), the Court invoked the 14th Amendment to strike down a law limiting the working day to 10 hours, calling it unconstitutional

• Rulings generally weakened union power and protected business interests

African American Labor Rights

• Formed their own unions, building solidarity and community

• Initially rejected by white unions and often used as strikebreakers (“scabs”)

• Their unions created a sense of belonging and national identity

• Later, groups like the Knights of Labor (KoL) and AFL began to integrate black workers

• Followed Booker T. Washington’s leadership, emphasizing education and business development

The Homestead Strike 1892

• One of the most serious and violent strikes in American labor history

• Conflict between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers and Carnegie Steel Company

• Ended in a battle between striking workers and the Pinkerton Detective Agency (private security/militia)

• Resulted in a major defeat for the union and weakened labor power in the steel industry

Cause of the Homestead Strike

- Andrew Carnegie ran the Homestead Steel Mill in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

- he reduced wages and increased working hours to keep profits high

- Henry Frick (Carnegie's chairman) enforced 12 hr working days 6 days a week leading to dangerous working conditions

- a group of steelworkers banded together to raise their concerns

Course of the Homestead Strike

- Frick began ramping up production due to fear of strikes

- a worker is then killed in a fatal accident

- Frick tells workers that Carnegie Steel will not negotiate on working hours - the workers call a strike

- 2000 workers bar entrance to the mill preventing Frick from bringing in replacement labour

- Frick brings in the Pinkertons who opened fired on workers

- 9 Carnegie steel workers died

- state miltia called in to restore peace

- Frick became "the most hated man in America"

Pullman strike cause

• Pullman Company cut wages by 25% and laid off 1/3 of its workers suddenly

• Workers tried to negotiate with management, but their efforts were rejected

• 3 worker representatives were fired by the company, escalating tensions

• Led to a widespread strike and boycott by the American Railway Union

Course of the Pullman Strike

• May 10, 1894: Workers at Pullman Palace Car Company went on strike

• Workers joined the American Railway Union (ARU) led by Eugene Debs, who took charge of the strike

• All ARU members refused to operate trains with Pullman cars, causing a nationwide railroad boycott

• Railroad companies appealed to the government for help

• In July 1894, President Cleveland sent in federal troops to break the strike

• Eugene Debs and other ARU leaders were arrested and imprisoned

Consequences of the Pullman Strike

• Company resumed production on August 2, 1894

• Showed how far authorities would go to suppress union activity

• Federal intervention was resented by state officials

• Marked the first time the federal government used the law to break a strike

• The Supreme Court legalized the use of injunctions against strikes

• Injunctions were used to break strikes until 1932, when their use was banned by federal law

American Railway Union (ARU)

- formed by Eugene Debs

- united railway workers all over the country

- militant organisisation

Injunctions

• A court order forcing an individual or group to stop certain actions

• Used to undermine support for strikes by legally limiting picketing and protests

• Helped demoralize strike participants and reduce their effectiveness

• Became a powerful tool for employers and the government to break strikes during this period

Progress by 1914

• By 1920, trade unions had 5 million members

• Unions became more active in congressional and local elections

• Woodrow Wilson elected president in 1912

• Wilson established a new Department of Labor headed by a former trade union leader

• The Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) limited the use of injunctions against unions

Regress by 1914

• Employers remained hostile to unions

• Divisions persisted between skilled vs. unskilled workers, immigrants, and Black workers

• Most labor rights gains were limited to white, male workers

• Uncertainty surrounded the permanence of workers’ rights

• Progress often depended on economic fluctuations

Impact of WW1 on workers rights

• Union membership doubled from 2.7 million (1916) to 5 million (1920)

• The National War Labor Board was established to mediate labor disputes

• The Great Migration increased racial tensions in workplaces

• There was growing intolerance of radicals, socialists, and union leaders

• Government and businesses generally avoided strikes, fostering better relations with unions during the war

• Factory production increased by 35% (1914–1918) and real wages rose by 20%

National Labor War Board

- recognised rights of unions to exist and represent workers

- negotiated collective bargaining agreement, 8 hr day and better security

The Red Scare

• Widespread fear of immigrants and dissidents in the US, especially those with socialist, communist, or anarchist beliefs

• The Bolshevik Revolution (1917) intensified suspicion, particularly towards Russian, Polish, and German immigrants

• Resulted in government crackdowns, raids, and deportations targeting radical groups

Palmer Raids

• Led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer targeting left-wing organizations

• Claimed there were 150,000 communist spies in the US (false information)

• Over 6,000 people arrested and imprisoned without trial

• Hundreds of immigrants deported

• Raids were a response to a largely imaginary threat

1917 Espionage Act and 1918 Sedition Act

• Espionage Act limited freedom of speech, especially speech against the war effort

• Sedition Act made it illegal to criticize the US government or war

• Both laws increased suspicion of trade unions

• Made it harder for unions to operate and organize during and after WWI

Sacco and Vanzetti Case

• Italian immigrants and radicals who avoided the draft

• Arrested in May 1920 for armed robbery

• Found with guns and anti-government pamphlets

• 61 witnesses claimed they were guilty; 107 claimed they were elsewhere at the time of the crime

• Executed by electric chair in 1927

• Celestio Madeiros later confessed, casting doubt on their guilt

• Became a symbol of anti-immigrant and anti-radical prejudice

Workers rights by 1920

• Wages rose steadily during the post-war boom.

• Mass production and “easy credit” made new consumer goods widely available (e.g., cars, refrigerators).

• High tariffs protected U.S. industry from foreign competition.

• Rise in nativism: Strikers were often viewed as communists (Red Scare influence).

• Union membership declined from 5 million (1920) to 3 million (1929).

• Government remained hostile to unions.

• Collective bargaining rights gained during WW1 were largely lost by the end of the decade.

Welfare Capitalism (1920s)

• Introduced improved working conditions, shorter hours, benefits, and profit-sharing schemes — in exchange for a promise not to strike.

• Creation of “company unions”:
  → Workers could raise grievances, but
  → No right to strike or negotiate wages.

Union Suppression Tactics:

• "Yellow-dog contracts": Workers had to sign agreements promising not to join unions.

• Use of management spies and private police to monitor and crush union activity.

Impact:

• Appeared to offer workers better conditions but ultimately weakened independent union power and preserved employer control.

Yellow Dog Contracts

an agreement between an employer and an employee that prevents the employee from joining a labor union

used throughout the 1920s and 30s

Henry Ford

Progressive Reforms:

• In 1914, Ford:

  • Reduced working day to 8 hours

  • Doubled daily wages

  • Introduced a profit-sharing scheme

• Created one of the largest factory complexes in the world

Control & Surveillance:

• Workers closely supervised

• Ford’s Protection Department:

  • Employed armed security

  • Suppressed union activity and enforced discipline

Union Relations:

• Refused to recognise unions until 1941

• Used welfare capitalism to undermine collective bargaining

Number of strikes decreased from 2,385 in ____ to _____ in 1929

Number of strikes decreased from 2,385 in 1921 to 921 in 1929

The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Maid

• African American union formed in 1925

• Represented Pullman porters and maids

• Pullman company appeared to be a good employer, but:

  • Workers relied on tips

  • Strict rules restricted workers

  • Union leaders were sacked

• Struggled for 12 years to gain collective bargaining rights

• First African American union accepted into the AFL in 1935

• Signed first collective bargaining agreement with the Pullman Company in 1937

A. Phillip Randolph

• A. Philip Randolph led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters

• Pullman was the largest employer of African Americans at the time

• Over 2,000 porters joined the union, but many were fired by the company

• The union went underground but remained strong

• In August 1937, workers received a large pay rise and a cut to working hours

• Randolph’s threat to march on Washington pressured Roosevelt into issuing Executive Order 8802, which banned racial discrimination in defense industries during WWII

Impact of the Wall St Crash on the workforce

• Wall Street Crash in October 1929 triggered the Great Depression

• Unemployment soared to 25% by 1932

• By 1933, only 10% of the workforce was unionised

• Workers had no legal right to take strike action

• Employers could sack striking workers without consequences

• No legal guarantee of collective bargaining rights for unions at the time

Impact of the Great Depression on workforce

• Hoover pushed for expanding public works but relied too much on private business funding

• Increased taxes worsened the economic downturn

• Employers cut costs by laying off workers

• This caused a deflationary cycle, making the economy shrink further

• By 1932, around 10 million Americans were unemployed

The New Deal

- as a result of the Great Depression unemployment reached 25% by 1932

- Hoover did little to tackle the problem as he believed in self sufficency and not charity

- in 1932 Democrat Franklin Roosevelt won the presidential election and proposed the "New Deal"

Progress made by unions under the New Deal

- NRA encouraged fair treatment of workers

- by 1934 557 codes had been agreed by companies covering 23 million workers

- NLRA provided unions with guarenteed collective bargining

- 1937 the Supreme Court banned employer spies and blacklisting

- union membership rose from 3.7 million in 1933 to 9 million 1938

- Roosevelt's Fair Employment Practices Comission attempted to tackle racist discrimination

Fair Labor Standards Act

- 1938

- created a minium wage of $25 dollar a week

- banned child labour

National Industry Recovery Act

- 1933

- passed by Congress

- established the National Recovery Administration

- NRA developed a code of practice about working hours, wages, production level and wages

National Labor Relations Act

- 1935

- ensured collective bargaining rights

- Supreme court declared it consitutional in 1937

- established a five-man National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) which bargained on behalf of workers and reinstated unfairly dismissed worker

Problems remaining under the New Deals

- NRA declared unconsitutional in 1935 by Supreme Court

- divisions within unions were still presented - AfL excluded unskilled

- no leadership or voice for significant numbers of unskilled workers e.g. agricultural workers

- ethnic minorities continued to face discrimination

- position of women in workplace did not improve

- NIRA upheld lower minimum wage for women

Congress of Industrial Organisations

- 1935

- made up of 8 unions including the AfL

- wanted to promote the organisations of unskilled workers

- AA and women's unions benefitted

- 1937 gained recognition from car manufacturers allowing their workers to join workers to join a union

- only Henry Ford resisted until 1941

Ways in which WW2 was good for trade unions

- huge demand for American goods

- production increased by a third

- solved the unemployment problem of the Great Depression

- 9 million in 1940 to 750,000 in Sept 1943

- unions grew from just under 9 million in 1939 to 15 million in 1945

- Ford recognised Auto-workers union in 1941

- women in workplace up by 50%

Ways in which WW2 was bad for trade unions

- strikes were regulated had to give 30 days notice

- President had the right to seize control of any factory affected by strikes

- Right to work laws were passed in the south which prohibited closed shop

- women were still paid less than men

- opportunities for women and minorities proved to be temporary

- racial discrimination continued

Taft Hartley Act 1947

- Amendment to the Wagner Act (1935)

- outlawed closed shops

- required 60 days strike notice

- allowed federal injunctions to prevent strikes threatening national safety

- required union officals to deny communist affliations

Changes seen in the 1950/60s

- GNP rose from $318 billion in 1950 to $488 in 1960

- 1960 60% of Americans owned their homes, 75% owned a car and 87% owned a TV

- Real income was 200% higher 1920

- machienes made car manurfacturing 50%

The Second Red Scare

- government fearful of uprisings which included labour strikes

- liberation movements were thought to be inspired by communism

- heightened atmosphere of suspicion

Changing nature of work in the 1950s

- decrease in number of blue collar workers

- automation replaced workers in steel, coal and automobile industries - trade union membership dropped 50%

- new jobs created in white collar sector

- workers in federal, state or local gov banned from unionising

- women in the workplace increased

- organised labour fell from 36% in 1953 to 31% in 1960

Complacency of unions in the 1950s

- resulted from post war economic benefits

- higher wages than ever before and average working hours were less than 40 a week

- received benefits like paid holiday and healthcare

- 1955 the merger of the AfL and CIO brought 85% of union members into a single unit

- old militancy of the labour movement disappeared

Poverty in the 1960s

- in 1960 35 million Americans lived below the poverty line

- 1/3 of the poor lived in depressed rural areas

- 2 million migrant farm workers lived in extreme poverty

- half of the housing in Harlem pre-dated 1900

- Harlem rates of illiteracy, infant death, TB, narcotics and crime above national average

Ways in which JFK was good for unions

- hourly rate increased from $1.15 to $1.25 in September 1963

- the Equal Pay Act 1963 ended wage discrimination on the basis of gender

- by 1970 the earnings of women were equal to 62% of male earnings

Ways in which JFK was bad for unions

- lack of support in Congress meant that in 1961 the bill to increase the minimum wage was rejected

- employers failed to keep their agreement not raise steel prices

- workers were not able to benefit from increased profit levels

Ways in which LBJ was good for unions

- created his "Great Society" focusing on the war on poverty, job creation and increased spending on benefits

- Civil Rights Act of 1964

- Economic Opportunity Act 1964

- Age Discrimination in Employment Act 1968

- wages rose by 2% every year

Ways in which LBJ was bad for unions

- focused overwhelmingly on the war on poverty

- advancing labour rights of less importance

- Great Society cancelled due to the cost of the Vietnam War

Economic Opportunities Act 1964

- sought to eradicate proverty by training young people in vocational skills

- increase employability

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act 1968

- prohibiting employment discrimination against those aged between 40 and 65 yrs old

- became illegal to include a statement of age preference in job ads

Chicano

- originally a term of abuse for people of Mexican origins who didn't live in Mexico

- later the term was adopted by Mexican Americans and used with pride

- the Chiacano movement was divided by those using peaceful methods whilst those like the Brown berets were more aggressive

Cesar Chavez

- Farm worker, labor leader, and civil-rights activist

- who helped form the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) , later the United Farm Workers.

Creation of Brown Power

- hispanics were radicalised in the 1960s infuenced by the black power movement

- 1960s Pastor Lopez Tijerina purchased 160 acres of land in Arizona and est a Mexican American community named "Valley of Peace"

- Tijerina led the Brown power movement

- had 20,000 members by 1966

- campaigned against the National Forest Service that had taken over land used by Chicano farmers

Establishment of the brown berets

- 1967

- brown berets formed in LA

- aimed to protect Chicanos from prejudiced police

- remained active until the early 1970s

1965 Chicano Grape Pickers Strike - Cause

- farm workers worked long hours and lived in poor conditions

- life expectancy for migrant workers was only 49

- children often forced to leave school early to support families and work on the farms

- continuing cycle of poverty and illiteracy

1965 Chicano Grape Pickers Strike - Course

- workers in Delano, California led a walk out on the 8th September 1965

- three weeks later 300,000 farm workers were on strike

- employers threatened workers with loss of jobs and deportation

- farmers bused in replacement workers and attacked strikers with legal injunctions

- led to grape boycott

Grape Boycott 1965

- strike leaders called for nationwide boycott on grapes and grape products

- Cesar Chavez lead a pilgrimage from Delano to the capital of Sacramento

- sympathisers came to join as the strikers travelled

- strikers attended mass in each town they visited to demonstrate their religious morals

- reinforced that they were not a communist threat

1965 Chicano Grape Pickers Strike

- the grape growers signed labor contracts with the United Farm Workers (UFW), granting workers better pay, benefits, and protections in 1970

- the UFW's victory was achieved through unity and support from white liberals

- brown power developed and became more radical in the late 60s

Hernandez V Texas

- 1954

- Hernandez ws on trial for murder

- jury was all white - argued that this was unjust

- Court held that the 14th Ammendment not only protected white and black under law but all racial groups in America

- guarenteed mexican americans the priveleges and immunites of citizenship

Factors threatening organised labour by the 1970s

- relative prosperity

- technological change

- Republican hostility

- Vietnam war

- war on poverty/ Johnson's Great Society

Air Traffic Controllers Strike 1981

- August 3rd 13,000 air traffic controllers went on strike calling for a $10,000 pay rise and shorter working week

- economy brought to a hault as flights were cancelled

- 4 hrs after the strike began Regan ordered the ATC's to return to their jobs within 48hrs or be terminated

- some argued that the strikers were violating the law as government officals were forbidden to fight

Consquences of the Air Traffic Controllers Strike

- Regan's threat was carried out and 11,000 ATC's were sacked

- PACTO leaders were imprisoned and the union was destroyed

- unions were hostile towards PACTO for affecting their reputation

- public had little sympathy for the already well paid workers

- Afl refused to support the strike

Short Term Impact of the Air Traffic Controllers Strike

- air travel significantly curtailed, took billions of dollars to return to pre-strike levels

- 11,000 workers lost their jobs

- underminded bargaining power of unions

- broke PACTO union

Long Term Impact of the Air Traffic Controllers Strike

- Regan's unprecedented dismissal of workers encouraged private employers to do the same

- by 2010 numbers of workers participating in walkouts was less than 2% of what it had been in 1952

- unions unable to pressure employers to increase wages

- contributed to stagnating incomes

Shift in the balance of power between employers and union in the 1970s

- reduction of profits increased employers determination to end union activity

- employers were getting away with denying workers wage agreements

- workers generally failed to protest

- complaints to the NLRB were processed slowly

- employment lawyers emerged to help employers circumvent the law

Changing workforce composition in the 1970s

- economic change resulted in fragmentation of the workforce

- made union organisation more difficult

- unskilled workforce divided ethnically

- women and Asian immigrants willing to work lower wages

- increased white collar workers, decrease blue collar workers

- WC workers benefitted from welfare schemes so were more inclined to support thier employers

Changing political attitudes and policies in the 1970s

- when union membership declined their value to the Democrats did also - without political support union power decreased

- affirmative action benefitted immigrant workers

- Occupation Safety and Health Act of 1970

- privitisation of publically owned businesses and services

- Regan insured members of the Labor Relations Board were presidential appointments - favoured employers

Changing Economy and Organisation of Industry

- slow economic growth in mid 70s - real wages fell for 80% of unskilled workers

- rich/poor divide worsened

- increasing opportunities for married women provided second income

- relocation of the manufacturing industry reduced size of the workforce

- larger businesses est subsidiaries in developing countries with a sizeable but less organised workforce

Women in the trade union movement

- early campaigns for better pay and conditions often tied in with the right to vote

- women usually paid less than men for doing the same work

- first female union was the Women's Trade Union League opposed sweatshop conditions

The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire

- occupied several floors of the Asch building in Manhattan

- young female immigrant employees working 11-12 hr days

- March 25 1911 fire started in bin of cotton scraps

- fire escape collapsed

- elevator broke down after 4 trips

- fire hoses could only reach the 7th floor, one floor below the factory

- lasted 18 mins

- 144 people died

Impact of Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire

- following day funeral protest took place

- Max Blanck and Issac Harria were indited for male slaughter but later pardoned

- led to the establishment of the International Ladies Garment Union

- law passed that sprinkler systems had to be installed in all factories

WTUL

- wanted laws to improve working conditions unlike the AfL which wanted negotiation with employers

- in influx of female workers during WW2 boosted female union membership from 800,000 to 3 million

- all male unions began supporting equal pay

- secured a minimum wage of $100 a week for all workers in New York and the 1963 Equal Pay Act

Role of Women in the Trade Union Movement

- working class women turned to trade unions to support their rightss over feminism

- called for the address of sexual harrassement and safety issues

- wanted provision of maternity leave and childcare

- increasing number of women joined unions in the 1970s

- Coalition of Labor Union Women in 1974