Final Exam for Environmental Issues

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Cap and Trade

A market-based system where companies buy or sell government-granted allowances to emit pollutants; used for air, water, and fuel emissions.

Advantages of Solar Energy

Renewable, reduces electricity bills, low emissions.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy

Intermittent, high initial cost, space requirements.

Advantages of Wind Energy

Clean, renewable, low operational cost.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy

Noise, impact on wildlife, inconsistent output.

Primary Air Pollutants

Emitted directly into the air (e.g., CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter).

Secondary Air Pollutants

Formed by reactions in the atmosphere (e.g., ozone, smog).

Major Air Pollutants

CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, lead, ozone, VOCs.

Clean Air Acts

U.S. laws that regulate air emissions from stationary and mobile sources.

Problems with Clean Air Acts

Enforcement issues, loopholes, outdated standards.

Ozone

depletion affects UV radiation;

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Man-made compounds that deplete the ozone layer.

Greenhouse Gases

CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, H₂O vapor; trap heat in Earth's atmosphere.

Consequences of Climate Change

Sea level rise, extreme weather, biodiversity loss, health risks.

Kyoto Protocol

1997 international treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; U.S. did not ratify.

COP15 (Copenhagen, 2009)

Goal: establish a global climate agreement; outcome: non-binding accord.

Paris Agreement (2015)

Global pact to limit global warming below 2°C; voluntary national targets.

IPCC Assessment Report

Scientific consensus on climate change, its impacts,

Primary Air Pollutant

A pollutant that enters the atmosphere directly.

Secondary air pollutant

A pollutant that forms through a chemical reaction between a primary pollutant and air components.

Name one example of a secondary pollutant.

Ozone (O₃), formed from NOx and VOCs in sunlight.

What are the major air pollutants?

Carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, ozone, VOCs, radon.

VOCs

Volatile Organic Compounds like methane, benzene, industrial solvents.

AQI (Air Quality Index)

measures five major air pollutants and gives public health warnings.

Greenhouse Gasses

CO₂, CH₄ (methane), N₂O (nitrous oxide), water vapor, and ozone.

Acid deposition

Precipitation or dust with a pH lower than 5.6, harmful to the environment and health.

purpose of the Clean Air Act

To reduce air pollution from major pollutants through regulation.

deficiencies of the Clean Air Act

Lack of focus on prevention, poor regulation of heavy trucks, motorcycles, ships, and airports.

Ozone layer's role

It filters out ~95% of the sun's harmful UV radiation.

CFCs

Chlorofluorocarbons; break down ozone in the stratosphere.

Montreal Protocol

1987 international treaty that banned CFCs; signed by 196 countries.

How long will it take for the ozone layer to recover?

Estimated 60 years to pre-1980 levels, 100 years to pre-1950 levels.

Who discovered the role of CFCs in ozone depletion?

F. Sherwood Rowland, Mario Molina, and Paul Crutzen in 1974.

What is the greenhouse effect?

Trapping of heat in Earth's atmosphere by greenhouse gases.

Who first described the greenhouse effect?

John Tyndall in 1859.

What are the five factors shaping Earth's climate?

Solar variation, greenhouse effect, oceans, water vapor cooling, and atmospheric dimming agents.

Keeling Curve

A graph showing the rise in atmospheric CO₂ since 1958 (from 316 ppm to ~423 ppm).

IPCC's main message

Climate warming is unequivocal and mostly caused by human activities.

What are consequences of climate change?

Rising sea levels, extreme weather, ocean acidification, ecosystem loss, human displacement.

What is mitigation?

Actions to reduce or prevent emission of greenhouse gases.

What is adaptation?

Strategies to minimize the harm from unavoidable climate effects.

What is the Paris Agreement (2015)?

International treaty aiming to limit global warming to 1.5°C through mitigation and adaptation.

What U.S. policy was created for the Paris Agreement?

The Clean Power Plan (cut emissions from coal plants by 32% by 2030).

What happened to the Clean Power Plan?

Trump withdrew U.S. from Paris Agreement and defunded CPP; Biden replaced it with Affordable Clean Energy Rule in 2022.

What is the United States Climate Alliance?

State coalition continuing to uphold the Paris Agreement despite federal withdrawal.

What is the "Lyons Nonattainment Area"?

Region near Kutztown that failed to meet federal air standards; designated a maintenance area in 2014.

Phytoplankton

They remove CO₂ and form the base of Arctic food webs.

What is the largest source of primary air pollution in the U.S.?

Automobile emissions (carbon monoxide ~48%).

What are the effects of ozone thinning?

Increased UV exposure harming humans, ecosystems, and materials.

What are the two main categories of air pollutants?

Primary and secondary.

What is cap and trade?

Market-based system to reduce emissions by setting a cap and allowing trading of allowances.

What is the average pH of acid rain?

Less than 5.6.

What are some substitutes for CFCs?

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other non-ozone-depleting substances.

Why was there resistance to CFC regulation?

Industries feared economic loss; CFCs were worth $8 billion/year in the U.S.

How do oceans influence climate?

Store CO₂ and heat, and redistribute heat via currents.

What is one proxy used to study past climate?

Ice cores and ocean sediment isotopes.

The IPCC reported in 2014 that there is unequivocal evidence that what has happened since the 1950’s?

human activities have warmed the climate

What is Eunice Foote recognized for?  

her discovery that CO2 concentrations could change temperature (i.e the greenhouse effect in 1856)

Which of the following would best enable us to stay below the recommended 2° C average temperature increase?

the world must become carbon negative

Which of the following is true about the Obama era Clean Power Plan in the USA?

23 states (including PA) have pledged to continue to follow the plan despite legal challenges and threats from the president and EPA

On April 22^nd, 2016 the United States signed what historic climate change treaty but began pulling out in June 2017?

Paris Agreement

Carbon monoxide originating from automobiles accounts for the largest proportion (~48%) of the primary air pollution in our air.

True

The average pH of precipitation in the Northeast of the U.S. has become less acidic (improved) since cap and trade under Title IV of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 was implemented.

True

Kutztown was part of the “Lyons Non-Attainment” area until 2014 because:

our air quality fell below federal safety standards for major pollutants such as lead

Climate Change

involves heat-trapping greenhouse gases.