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Hafstad (2017)
Aim: To compare the diagnosis of PTSD using ICD-11 and DSM-5
International Classification of Disorders (ICD-11), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
Methods:
(325 teens, 451 parents) Young victims of the 2011 terrorist attack in Norway. Parents were interviewed 4 to 6 months after the attack and 11 to 18 months after they were assessed for PTSD using the DSM-5 and the ICD-11
Results:
The overlap of those diagnosed by the DSM-5 and ICD-11 was low
The DSM-5 had a higher diagnosis rate than the ICD-11. While the difference was quite small in interviewing the survivors (38% prevalence when using the DSM-5 and 35% with the IDC-11) When assessing the parents the differences and prevalence were much larger (29% with the DSM-5 compared to 17% with ICD-11) This could mean that PTSD is overdiagnosed in America and underdiagnosed worldwide
Garrison et al. 1995
Aim: To investigate the cross-cultural differences in PTSD symptoms after Hurricane Andrew.
Method:
Studied 350 black, Hisanic and Caucasian teenage participants six months after the hurricane.
Structured interview and focused on things such as “disaster experiences and emotional reaction, disaster-related losses, lifetime exposure to violent or traumatic events, recent stressful experiences, and psychiatric symptomatology”.
Results:
9% of females and 3% of males met PTSD criteria.
Prevalence rates highest among black individuals (8.3%) and Hispanics (6.1%).
Number of stressful events experienced after the disaster had a stronger correlation with PTSD symptoms than the severity of the experience during the actual hurricane.
Conclusion:
Increased prevalence rates could be due to economic disparity between racial groups. (Whites having an average net worth of 7X more than non-whites). If a family struggles to find economic resources to deal with the aftermath of an event, there may be an increase in stress and anxiety. Additional stress could increase negative cognitive appraisals of the traumatic event, leading to a higher rate of PTSD symptoms.
Solomon et al. 2005
Aim: To investigate the role of gender in cognitive reappraisal on PTSD vulnerability
ToE: Correlational study
Method: Questionnaires is used to measured cognitive reappraisals of the attacks
Results:
Men:
More trauma exposed
Lesser levels of trauma
Higher self-efficacy
Lower sense of threat
Women:
Less trauma exposed
More levels of trauma
Lower levels of self-efficacy
Higher sense of threat
Conclusion: Although men tend to be exposed to more traumatic events due to their higher levels of self confidence in being able to deal with their issues they have less sustained traumatic responses and feel less threatened by their past. Women tend to have the opposite experience and as a result are more likely to experience top-down processing and are more likely to develop PTSD.
Rosenhan 1973
Aim: To test if psychologists can determine if a patient has normal or abnormal psychology after being led to believe otherwise
Methods: Participants made complaints that they heard unclear voices saying “empty”, “hollow” and “thud” and they provided truthful information on all matters other than name, and occupation. Once admitted participants stopped simulating any psychiatric conditions, and would tell other patients and staff that they were feeling fine and indicated that they were back to normal
Results:
In eleven instances, participants were admitted on a diagnosis of schizophrenia and discharged with a diagnosis of schizophrenia in remission
Psychologists labeled “normal” actions by the participants as signs of “abnormality” (journaling for the study became obsessive journaling and a negative symptom)
Stays ranged from 7 to 52 days, with a mean of 19 days. This shows how psychiatrists make type 2 errors on admission
Temerlin 1968
Aim: To investigate the effect of labelling/prestige effect on psychiatric diagnosis
Methods:
The researchers showed a video tape to their participants (psychiatrists, clinical psychologists and graduate students in clinical psychology). In the video, an actor portrayed a mentally healthy scientist and mathematician. Experimental group was told that a psychiatrist said “very interesting man because he looked neurotic, but actually was quite psychotic” (meaning he had a disorder). 2 control groups existed, one group was given no prior information, and the other group was told that he was mentally healthy. After watching the video, participants had to make a diagnosis.
Results: 60% of the psychiatrists in the experimental group selected a psychotic disorder, as did 28% of the psychologists and 11% of psychology graduate students. By comparison, no one in the control groups chose a diagnosis of a psychotic disorder.
Luby et al.
Aim: To investigate how environmental factors (such as parenting strategies) experienced in childhood affect brain development (Specifically within the hippocampus)
Methods:
Longitudinal study with 145 children as participants. For 3-6 years participants took an annual exam that measured cognitive, emotional and social development. Parent-child interactions, socioeconomic status and stressful events were also recorded. After this, participants brains were scanned using MRI
Parent-Child interaction was studied through a process in which parents had to stop their child from opening a present while the parent was filling out a questionnaire. The strategies the parents used were recorded and categorized.
Results:
Poverty was associated with less white and grey brain matter and a smaller hippocampus and amygdala
A positive correlation was found between supportive parenting strategies (praising child for waiting) and higher hippocampal volume
Conclusions: The early environment may have an impact on brain development. The impact of poverty exposure on the hippocampal formation of young children sheds light on the significance of stress and caring from an early age.
Hwang et al. 2012
Aim: To investigate different cultural attitudes towards etiologies and treatments.
Method:
Used questionnaires to gather data on attitudes towards mental health of over 2,000 US participants aged over 65 years old.
They were grouped by ethnicity: non-Latino whites, African-Americans, Asian-Americans, and Latinos.
Hypothesized that the minority groups’ attitudes towards the origins of mental health problems would be different to non-Latino whites.
Results:
Question: “What do you think causes depression?” Results revealed African-Americans were more likely to believe it resulted from stress or worry, and seeked spiritual advice. Latinos were more likely to opt for medication.
When it came to speaking to someone about their mental health problem, African-Americans were more likely to want to speak to a family member; non-Latino whites more likely to seek psychological help. Asian-Americans were less likely to speak to anyone and were more likely to desire that their treatment provider belonged to the same racial group as them.
Conclusion: Differences in cultural backgrounds may influence disorder prevalence as the frequency of a particular disorder may increase or decrease according to a culture’s attitudes towards treatment or origin.
Horne et al. 2004
Aim: To investigate cultural differences in attitudes towards using medication.
Methods: Gathered data from 500 undergraduate students in the UK who identified as being either from an Asian cultural background or from a European cultural background.
Results: Asian students were more likely to have negative attitudes towards using medication and they were more likely to perceive them as intrinsically harmful and addictive substances.
Conclusion: Differences in cultural backgrounds may influence disorder prevalence as the frequency of a particular disorder may increase or decrease according to a culture’s attitudes towards treatment.
MacNamara et al.
Aim: To determine whether SSRIs can increase the ability to cognitively reappraise negative situations
Method: 17 veterans with PTSD and 17 without were used as the sample for this study. They were tested in their cognitive ability to reappraise by showing them negatively connoted images. Once a baseline had been set, the veterans with PTSD were given SSRIs over a 12 week period, while the other group remained in control. After the 12 week period, they were re-tested in their cognitive ability to reappraise the negative situations.
Results: It was found that the group that was given SSRIs significantly improved in their ability to reappraise negative situations (12/17 experienced a 50% decrease in PTSD symptoms). SSRIs can help alleviate symptoms of PTSD, especially augmenting the function of the amygdala and encouraging top down processing over bottom up.
Gilbertson et al. 2007
Aim: Investigating whether low hippocampal volume is a symptom or etiology of PTSD
Methods:
Two groups of twins
34 sets of monozygotic (identical) twins with a no trauma exposed twin in each pair
Group 1 Twins
One veteran twin who went to war and developed PTSD (trauma exposed) and one non veteran twin (trauma unexposed)
Group 2 Twins
One twin who was a veteran and went to war but didn’t develop PTSD (trauma exposed) and the other twin is the non veteran twin
Each group of twins was compared with the other group of twins by using MRI scans to look at their hippocampal volume
Results:
The Group 1 Twins had a lower hippocampal volume than the Group 2 Twins. As a result it can be concluded that hippocampal volume is a genetic etiology of PTSD
To what extent do sociocultural factors influence the prevalence of one or more disorders?
Introduction: The prevalence of abnormal psychology can be influenced by several factors. Prevalence refers to the frequency of diagnosis for a particular disorder, and is often highly influenced by social and cultural standards of society. For example, the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is influenced by factors such as socioeconomic status, race, gender, and culture
Studies: Horne and Hwang
Discuss the prevalence rates of one or more disorders.
Introduction: prevalence in psychological disorders refers to the frequency of diagnosis for a particular disorder. A prevalence rate is the percentage of a population that are diagnosed with a specific disorder. With that being said, this paper will explore the factors that may influence prevalence rates of PTSD.
Main argument: what impacts the prevalence rate of PTSD are gender, socioeconomic status and developmental influences during childhood.
Gender: men tend to be exposed to traumatic events than females, but females reported higher levels of trauma and stress-related symptoms than men. (Solomon et al 2005)
Socioeconomic status: Our cognitive appraisal of a natural disaster may be significantly more negative if we are from a low socioeconomic background and we lose our homes and/or other valuable belongings. We can think negatively or anxiously about the effects of the calamity and how we'll manage financially. (Garrison et al 1995)
developmental influences during childhood: The more positive and supportive parenting strategies that were used, the more likely the child was to have higher volume in their hippocampus (Luby et al.)
Studies: Solomon, Garrison, Luby
Discuss the role of culture in the treatment of one or more disorders.
Intro/Central Argument: The cultural impact on the treatment of disorders most often comes in the form of what types of treatments are more acceptable to certain cultures than others. Namely western cultures versus Asian cultures
Studies: Horne, Hwang
Compare one biological treatment with one psychological treatment for disorders.
Intro: One biological treatment that is often used by psychologists are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). SSRIs are often used to treat PTSD by blocking the reuptake of serotonin. A frequently used psychological treatment that is used for PTSD is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT includes many types of treatment that seeks to align behavior, emotion, and therapy.
Studies: MacNamera, Felemingham
Discuss the concepts of normality and abnormality.
Intro/main argument: Abnormal psychology is the study of behavior that deviates from the accepted social norms within a society. Any behavior that is different from the expected behavior is termed “abnormal behavior”. Whereas normal behavior means to conform to an accepted pattern of behavior. However, there are factors that limit the effectiveness of
Studies: Temerlin, Hafstad, and Rosenhan
Discuss the validity and/or reliability of the diagnosis of disorders.
Studies: Rosenhan, Hafstad
Evaluate the use of one research method used to study etiologies of abnormal psychology.
Intro/Main Argument: A research method used in evaluating abnormal psychology is a case-control design. This research method can help observe and categorize individuals. One way of evaluating etiologies of abnormal psychology is by looking at genetics. By investigating the cause or origin of symptoms studying psychiatric disorders such as PTSD.
Studies: Gilbertson
Discuss one or more ethical considerations relevant to the treatment of disorders.
Intro: Use of biological treatments can sometimes carry the risk of addiction or relapse if the treatment is experimental and a participant can not obtain the treatment outside of the study
Cultural beliefs on the etiologies of disorders are important consideration so that when an individual receives a treatment plan it aligns with their cultural beliefs so that this individual is more likely to follow through
The ethical considerations of clinicians when regarding the treatment of disorders is very important when it comes to making determinations on the “right” way to treat certain individuals and how to test new treatments. This mostly comes out as a result of the etiologies of disorders such as PTSD and with certain treatment plans like biological remedies.
Studies: MacNamara, Huang
