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Nature

Genetic influences on behavior and traits; what you inherit from your parents.

Nurture

Environmental influences on behavior, including family, culture, and experiences.

Evolutionary Perspective

Behavior and traits that developed because they helped survival or reproduction.

Natural Selection

Helpful inherited traits become more common because they improve survival/reproduction.

Environment

External surroundings and experiences that influence a person.

Heredity

The passing of genetic traits from parents to offspring.

Eugenics

The controversial idea of improving a population by controlling who reproduces.

Behavior Genetics

The study of how genes and environment influence behavior.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can affect gene expression without changing DNA.

Nervous System

The body's communication system made of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; the main processing and control center.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body for action; the "fight-or-flight" system.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord; connects the CNS to the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movement and carries sensory information to the CNS.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and restores it after arousal; "rest and digest."

Neurons

Nerve cells that receive, process, and transmit information using electrical and chemical signals.

Glial Cells

Cells that support, protect, nourish, and insulate neurons.

Reflex Arc

A rapid, automatic response to a stimulus that can occur without conscious brain processing.

Sensory Neurons

Carry information from sensory receptors toward the CNS.

Motor Neurons

Carry commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons in the CNS that connect sensory and motor neurons and process information.

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels down a neuron's axon.

All-or-Nothing Principle

A neuron either fires completely or does not fire; there is no partial firing.

Depolarization

The inside of a neuron becomes less negative, helping trigger an action potential.

Reuptake

The sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters from the synapse.

Multiple Sclerosis

An autoimmune disease that damages myelin, slowing nerve signals.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the chance that the next neuron will fire.

Dopamine

Helps control reward, motivation, movement, attention, and learning.

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness, arousal, attention, and the fight-or-flight response.

GABA

The brain's major inhibitory neurotransmitter; reduces neural activity and promotes calm.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands that travel through the bloodstream.

Leptin

A hormone that helps signal fullness and regulate body fat.

Melatonin

Hormone that helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle.

Refractory Period

Brief period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again or is less likely to fire.

Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger a neural response/action potential.

Myasthenia Gravis

Autoimmune disorder that damages acetylcholine receptors, causing muscle weakness.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the chance that the next neuron will fire.

Serotonin

Helps regulate mood, sleep, appetite, and other functions.

Glutamate

The brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter; important for learning and memory.

Endorphins

Natural chemicals that reduce pain and can produce feelings of pleasure.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Involved in muscle movement, learning, memory, and attention.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

Hormone that increases heart rate, energy, and alertness during stress.

Ghrelin

A hormone that increases hunger.

Oxytocin

Hormone involved in bonding, childbirth, and social behavior.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that change brain activity, perception, mood, or behavior.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's action.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

Caffeine

A stimulant that blocks adenosine receptors, reducing feelings of tiredness.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant that increases dopamine and other neurotransmitters by blocking reuptake.

Opioids

Drugs that reduce pain and slow nervous system activity by acting on opioid receptors.

Heroin

An opioid drug that produces strong pain relief and euphoria and can cause dependence.

Addiction

Compulsive substance use despite harmful consequences.

Agonist

A substance that mimics or increases the action of a neurotransmitter.

Reuptake Inhibitor

A substance that prevents neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed, leaving more in the synapse.

Depressants

Drugs that slow central nervous system activity and reduce arousal.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception and can cause hallucinations.

Tolerance

Needing more of a substance to get the same effect.

Withdrawal

Physical and psychological symptoms that occur after reducing or stopping a substance.

Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

The brain's ability to change and reorganize itself based on experience or injury.

EEG

Records the brain's electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI

Shows brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

Lesions

Damaged areas of brain tissue used to study the functions of brain regions.

Brain Stem

Controls basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and arousal.

Medulla Oblongata

Controls vital functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Damage: problems with breathing or heart rate.

Reticular Activating System (Reticular Formation)

Helps control alertness, arousal, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle. Damage: reduced alertness or consciousness.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, movement, and fine motor skills. Damage: poor coordination and balance.

Cerebral Cortex

The brain's outer layer responsible for complex thinking, perception, language, and voluntary movement. Damage: depends on the damaged area.

Limbic System

A group of structures involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory. Damage: problems with emotion or memory.

Thalamus

Relays most sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. Damage: disrupted sensory processing.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and other basic drives; helps control hormones. Damage: problems with homeostasis.

Pituitary Gland

Major endocrine gland that releases hormones controlling growth and other body functions. Damage: hormone and growth problems.

Hippocampus

Helps form and store new explicit memories. Damage: difficulty forming new memories.

Amygdala

Helps process emotions, especially fear and aggression. Damage: altered emotional/fear responses.

Corpus Callosum

Large bundle of fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres. Damage: reduced communication between hemispheres.

Broca's Area

Area involved in producing speech. Damage: difficulty producing fluent speech.

Wernicke's Area

Area involved in understanding language. Damage: difficulty understanding spoken or written language.

Cortex Specialization

Different areas of the cerebral cortex have specialized functions.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

Each brain hemisphere generally controls the opposite side of the body.

Aphasia

Language impairment caused by damage to areas of the brain involved in language.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information. Damage: vision problems.

Temporal Lobe

Processes hearing, language, and aspects of memory. Damage: hearing or language problems.

Parietal Lobe

Processes touch and other body sensations and helps with spatial awareness. Damage: sensory or spatial problems.

Somatosensory Cortex

Processes touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position. Damage: reduced or abnormal sensation.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in planning, decision-making, personality, movement, and higher thinking. Damage: changes in judgment, behavior, or movement.

Prefrontal Cortex

Controls planning, decision-making, judgment, and impulse control. Damage: poor judgment or impulse control.

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary muscle movements. Damage: weakness or loss of movement on the opposite side of the body.

Consciousness

Awareness of yourself and your surroundings.

Circadian Rhythm

The body's roughly 24-hour biological cycle that regulates sleep, alertness, and other functions.

Jet Lag

Temporary disruption of the circadian rhythm after traveling across time zones.

EEG Patterns

Patterns of electrical brain activity associated with different states of sleep and wakefulness.

NREM Sleep

Non-REM sleep consisting of three stages, progressing from light to deep sleep.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Vivid sensations or hallucinations that can occur while falling asleep.

REM Sleep

A stage of sleep with rapid eye movements, active brain activity, and vivid dreaming; most muscles are temporarily paralyzed.

REM Rebound

An increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

The idea that dreams result from the brain trying to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep.

Consolidation Theory

The idea that sleep helps strengthen and store memories from experiences.