Psychology AQA GCSE Paper 2

What is Conformity?

an individual thinks or acts similar to those around them

3 social factor influencing conformity

group size, anonimity, and task difficulty

Dispositional Factor

An individual's personality traits or characteristics influence their behaviour and decisions in social situations. E.g. personality and expertise

Social Factor

Any external element in a social context that affects an individual's behavior or decision-making, such as peer pressure or group dynamics.

Informational social influence

A type of influence resulting from the desire to be correct or informed, where individuals conform to others' views as they believe those views are accurate.

Normative social influence

A type of influence driven by the desire to be liked or accepted by others, leading individuals to conform to group norms or behaviors even if they do not personally agree.

Asch’s study of conformity (1956)

Aim: To investigate if people would conform to the opinions of others and knowingly give an incorrect answer.

Study design: Lab

Method: Groups of 7 to 9 people were shown a set of 4 lines: one standard line and three comparison lines. They had to say which comparison line matched the standard.

Each group had only one real participant. The real participant thought the study was about visual judgment, but the confederates were told to give the same wrong answer on 12 out of 18 trials.

The real participant always answered near the end, after hearing the others.

Results:

• Participants were found to give the incorrect answer 36.8% of the time.

• Participants also conformed to the incorrect majority at least once 76% of the time.

• Only 24% of participants resisted the pressure to conform and gave the correct judgement in every trial.

Evaluating Asch’s study of conformity

Strengths - lab study

Weaknesses - artificial task, dated research 50’s, cultural differences

Milgram’s Obedience Study (1963)

Aim:

how far ordinary people would go in obeying an authority figure

Study Design:

Lab, Yale University, 40 male volunteers

Method:

Participant was always the "teacher", the "learner" and "experimenter" were both actors

The learner was in a separate room and was strapped to a chair with (fake) electrodes.

The teacher had to give the learner an electric shock every time they got an answer wrong.

The shocks increased by 15 volts each time, from 15V up to 450V.

The learner gave wrong answers and started protesting at 150V, then stopped responding after 300V.

If the teacher hesitated, the experimenter (in a lab coat) gave pressure

Results:

• All 40 participants gave shocks up to 300 volts.

• 65% (26 out of 40) went the maximum 450 volts, despite showing signs of stress (e.g. sweating, trembling, nervous laughter).

• Many participants were uncomfortable but continued obeying the authority figure.

Evaluating Milgram’s Obedience Study

Strengths - high ecological validity, supporting research

Weaknesses- lacked realism, ethical concern

Autonomous state

State where we feel as if we are responsible for our own actions with the freedom to choose

Agentic state

State when we believe we are acting on the behalf of an authority figure

Obedience

Following the orders or instructions of someone in authority, even if you might not agree with them.

Factors affecting obedience

Social - authority figures, culture, proximity

Dispositional - confidence, intelligence

Authoritarian Personality

A type of personality more likely to obey authority figures.
Often linked to harsh upbringing, with strong discipline and respect for authority.

Evaluating Adorno’s theory on Authoritarian Personality

Weaknesses

• Adorno’s F-scale is biased—agreeing often shows authoritarianism.

• He found correlation, not causation, between personality and obedience.

• Milgram’s obedient participants didn’t always have strict upbringings.

• Lower education, not just personality, may also affect obedience.

Factors affecting bystander behaviour

Social - The Presence of Others, The Cost of Helping

Dispositional - Similarity to the Victim, expertise

Piliavin’s Subway Study (1969)

Aim:
To see if helping behaviour is affected by the victim’s appearance

Design: A field experiment on a New York subway train.

Method:

A male confederate (the “victim”) collapsed in the train carriage.

He appeared either drunk (38 trials) or ill (sober, with a can, 65 trials).

Results:

When appeared sober, he was helped within 70 seconds 95% of the time. When appeared drunk, he was helped within 70 seconds 50% of the time.

Evaluating Piliavin’s Subway Study

Strengths - high realism, includes qualitative data, ecological validity

Weaknesses - feild experiment, ethical concern, culture difference

Deindividuation

When individuals lose self-awareness and a sense of identity in a group

They are less responsible and more likely to engage in impulsive or antisocial behaviour.

Factors in Crowd and collective behaviour

Social loafing, Diendividuation, Culture, Personality, Morality

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

• idea that language influences thought.

• We see and think about the world through the language we speak.

  • (Linguistic Relativity): Language influences our thoughts, but doesn’t fully control them.

• Supported by examples of native american language differences

Evaluating Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Strength - explains the link between language and intelligence

Weaknesses - methods have been deemed unreliable, people who may grow up without a language, or those that lose the ability to speak such as stroke victims, are still able to think

Piagets language theory

• Language depends on thought; understanding comes before verbal expression.

• Cognitive development drives language development.

• Children only use language properly once they grasp the concept behind the word.

Evaluating Piagets language theory

Strength - supporting research with young children

Weakness - Sapir-Whorf suggests opposite, schemas cannot be measured

Strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Language completely controls our thoughts.

Weak version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Language influences our thoughts, but doesn’t fully control them.

Karl Von Frisch’s Bee Study 1950

Aim:
To investigate how bees communicate information to each other.

Study Design:
Field observation using real bees.

Method:

Von Frisch placed sugar water at different locations.

Observed how bees returned to the hive and "danced."

Recorded types of dances used and where other bees flew.

Results:

Bees used a round dance for nearby food and a waggle dance for distant food.

The dances showed the direction and distance of food.

Other bees understood and followed the directions.

Evaluating Karl Von Frisch’s Bee Study

Strength - scientific contribution

Weakness - feild experiment, glass hive

3 properties of human communication not in animals

Communication properties

• creativity

• multiple methods of communication

• planning ahead

Displacement

the ability to communicate about things that are not present or events that have yet to happen in the future

Non-verbal communication

Conveying messages without the use of words.

Non verbal communication examples

eye contact, posture, touch

Factors affecting personal space

gender, culture, status

Posture echo

When one person copies the body position or posture of another.

Body Language

A type of non-verbal communication.

Includes facial expressions, gestures, posture, and movement.

Can support or contradict what someone is saying.

Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory of Non-Verbal Communication

The thoery non-verbal communicationis innate and evolved from survival.

Main Idea:

• Emotional expressions (like anger, happiness) are universal and genetically programmed.

Evaluating Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory of Non-Verbal Communication

Strength - Basic facial expressions are the same across cultures and appear in neonates (babies) and blind people

Weakness - cultural differences in non verbal communication

Masaki Yuki’s Emoticons Study 2007

Aim: To investigate if culture affects how facial cues are used when understanding other peoples emotions.

Study design: A questionnaire, American and Japanese students.

Method: Yuki showed participants emoticons with six different combinations of eyes and mouths. The eyes and mouths were happy, neutral and sad. Participants were then asked to rate how happy they thought each face was.

Results: The Japanese students were found to give the highest ratings for the faces with happy eyes and the lowest ratings for the face with sad eyes. American students tended to give the highest ratings to the faces with happy mouths and the lowest ratings to the faces with sad mouths.

Evaluating Masaki Yuki’s Emoticons Study

Strength - supports theory of nonverbal behaviour being learned

Weakness - artificial materials, only tested 2 emotions

The nervous system

Complex network of nerve fibres and nerve cells that pass information around the body

Central nervous system function

Coordinates incoming information and voluntary decisions about movements.

Includes brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Collects and sends information to and from different parts of the body.
Two sections: Somantic and Autonomic

Somantic nervous system

Passes information to and from the central nervous system (CNS) using sensory and motor neurons

• Voluntary control

• Somatic has no subdivisions

Autonomic nervous system

Uses information from our internal organs to control our functions

• Involuntary control

• has two divisions (sympathetic & parasympathetic)

Symphatheic division

Speeds up the body in stress – e.g. faster heart rate, pupils dilate, digestion slows.

Fight or flight response

Parasympathetic division

Calms the body – e.g. slower heart rate, pupils constrict, digestion returns to normal.

Conserves and stores energy when not under threat

Functions of Autonomic nervous system

• quick reactions in emergencies

• controls automatic functions

• connects brain to endocrine system

Endocrine system

The network of glands that release hormones to regulate body functions like growth and stress response.

James Lange theory of emotion

The theory that our experience of physiological comes first and is then interpreted as emotion.

Event > Arousal > Interpretation > Emotion

Evaluating James Lange theory of emotion

Strengths - supporting evidence in panic disorders, recognised ANS importance

Weaknesses - too simple, other theories contradict

Nuerons

Special cells that transmit electrical impulses via chemical signals.

Sensory Nuerons

Function - carry info from sense organs to CNS

Structure - cell body with two stems. ends in dendrites that connect to other cells

Motor Nuerons Function and structure

Function - carries signals from CNS to muscles for movement

Structure - starts in spinal cord, long axon carries signals to muscle, ends in spread of dendrites

Relay Neurons

Function - transmits messages between sensory and motor nuerons with the CNS

Structure - central cell body surrounded by dendrites

Synaptic transmission Definition

Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate using chemical messages called neurotransmitters.

Synaptic transission process

Electrical impulse arrival > Nuerotransmitter release > Receptor Binding

• electrical impulse travels to synaptic knobs

• vesicles open and release neurotransmitters into synapse

• other nueron receptor sites pick up neurotransmitters

• after message is passed they are released and reabsorbed through reuptake

Effects of synaptic transmission on recieving nueron

Excitation or Inhibition

Excitation

Occurs when a neurotransmitter increases the positive charge of the next neuron, making it more likely to fire an electrical impulse.

Inhibition

Happens when a neurotransmitter increases the negative charge of the next neuron, making it less likely to fire an electrical impulse.

Hebbs theory of learning and nueronal growth

The theory that when we learn, new connections between neurons are created in the brain.

Evaluating Hebbs theory of learning and nueronal growth

Strengths - scientific basis, real world application to education

Weaknesses - reduces learning to a neuronal level

Main parts of the brain

Frontal lobe

Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Cerebellum

Frontal lobe

Function-

• speech production

• thinking

• voluntary movement

• planning

Contains: Motor area, Broca’s area

Parietal lobe

Function-

• sensory info

• perception

• spatial awareness

• attention

Contains: sensory area

Occipital lobe

Function-

• Vision

• Perception

Contains: -

Temporal lobe

Function-

• Memory

• Hearing

• Language

Contains: Wernicke’s Area

Cerebellum

Function-

• balance

• posture

• coordination of movement

Contains: -

Localisation of function concept

The idea that psychological functions are controlled from particular partsof the brain

Penfield’s Study of the Interpretive Cortex

Aim:
To investigate workings of the concious mind

Study Design:
Clinical case studies of patients undergoing open brain surgery.

Method:
Patients were awake during surgery. Penfield electrically stimulated areas of the cortex and asked patients to describe what they experienced.

Results:

• Stimulating the temporal lobe caused patients to recall vivid memories

• Stimulation of the visual cortex led to visual sensations.

• Motor and sensory areas triggered movements or feelings of touch.

• Penfield concluded that the temporal lobe plays a role in interpreting meaning and localisation of function exists in the brain.

Cognitive neuroscience

Studies how the structure and function of the brain relate to thinking and behaviour.

Focuses On:

• How brain areas link to cognitive processes

• How these affect behavioural responses

CT Scan (Computed Tomography)

• Combines X-ray slices to form an image of the brain.

• Shows different tissue densities (e.g. grey vs white matter).

• Used to detect tumours, bleeds, and damage.

• Involves exposure to radiation.

PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

• Tracks a radioactive chemical injected into the blood.

• Shows active brain areas by measuring blood flow.

• Can reveal blocked pathways or abnormal brain activity.

• Less common due to radioactivity risk.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

• Uses magnetic fields to detect brain activity.

• Active brain cells alter the signal picked up by the scanner.

• Very accurate, fast (every 2 seconds), and safe.

• Shows brain regions working during specific tasks (e.g. recalling memories, reading words).

Evaluating Penfield’s Study of the Interpretive Cortex

Strength - precise method

Weakness - unusual sample of epileptic patients, mixed results in later studies

Tulving’s Gold Memory Study (1989)

Aim:
To investigate the connection between different types of memory and brain activity.

Study Design:
Case study, 6 volunteers, repeated measures, (PET scans).

Method:
Participants were injected with a small amount of radioactive gold and asked to think of episodic and semantic memories. This was repeated 8 times, with 4 episodic memories and 4 semantic memories done randomly. A PET scanner tracked brain activity.

Results:

• only 3/6 had clear results

• Episodic memories cause blood flow to front of brain

• Semantic memories caused blood flow to back of brain

• Showed that different types of memory are stored in different areas of the brain.

Evaluating Tulving’s Gold Memory Study (1989)

Strengths - objective scientific evidence, small risk to participents

Weakness - sample too small, lacks internal validity, dont know what theyre thinking

How do cultural beliefs influence attitudes towards mental health?

• Some cultures see it as a personal weakness (e.g., Asian cultures)

• May lead to stigma and discrimination

• Treatment varies: biological (medication) vs. spiritual (prayers/exorcism)

• Self-help is more common in open, emotionally expressive cultures

How do mental health problems affect daily life and employment?

• Poor sleep, low energy, and difficulty concentrating

• Those affected are 4x more likely to be unemployed, which can worsen their mental health.

What physical health effects can mental health problems cause?

Medication side effects, appetite changes, weight gain/loss, reduced exercise, and difficulty following treatment plans.

How do mental health issues impact family and relationships?

Can strain relationships, turn family members into carers (causing stress), and negatively affect children—some may become carers or enter care.

What are the broader effects of mental health problems on society?

Economic costs (15% of health issues, £15B lost productivity), high rates in prisons, and increased demand for public services like healthcare, housing, and welfare.

What is unipolar depression?

A mood disorder involving continuous low mood, low energy, and loss of enjoyment. Also called clinical depression.

What is bipolar depression?

A mood disorder where individuals experience both depressive episodes and manic episodes (high energy, risky behaviour).

Name three key symptoms of depression according to the ICD-10.

Persistent low mood, reduced energy, changes in sleep

What does the ICD-10 say is needed for a depression diagnosis?

Symptoms must be present for at least two weeks and can be mild, moderate or severe based on severity/number.

What is the biological explanation of depression?

An imbalance of neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine affects mood and causes depression.

What does serotonin do in the brain?

Controls mood, sleep, appetite, and aggression.

What brain structure is linked with depression in research?

The hippocampus – found to be smaller in depressed individuals.

What is the cognitive explanation for depression?

Negative schemas (thought patterns) and attributions can lead to depression.

What is an attribution?

The way people explain causes of events or behaviours (e.g. internal vs external, stable vs unstable).

What attribution style is linked to depression?

Internal and stable – e.g., “I failed because I’m stupid and always will be.”

What are SSRIs and how do they work?

SSRIs are antidepressants that stop serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin levels in the brain.

What are some side effects of antidepressants?

Weight gain, dry mouth, insomnia, aggression, suicidal thoughts.

What is Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)?

A talking therapy that helps people identify and change negative thought patterns.

What does CBT focus on?

Present problems and finding more logical, rational ways of thinking.

What is the difference between a reductionist and holistic view of depression?

Reductionist focuses on one cause (e.g. biology), while holistic considers multiple interacting factors (bio-psycho-social).

Wiles’ Study of the Effectiveness of CBT (2013)

Aim:
To investigate whether CBT is effective for people with depression who have not responded to antidepressants alone.

Design:
Longitudinal field experiment in real-life settings (UK). Limited control over extraneous variables.

Method:

• Participants: 469 people aged 18–75, already on antidepressants with little improvement.

• Randomly assigned to:

  • CBT group (234): Received 12 weekly 1-hour CBT sessions + medication + usual care.

  • Control group (235): Continued medication + usual care (no CBT).

• Regular follow-ups conducted.

Results:

• After 6 months:

  • 46% of CBT group showed significant improvement vs. 22% in control group.

• After 12 months:

  • Greater improvement in quality of life in the CBT group.

Evaluating Wiles’ Study of the Effectiveness of CBT (2013)

Strengths - carefully designed random allocation, hollistic approach can be real world applied, useful study

Weaknesses - difficult to test levels of depression, ethical concern

Piagets language theory stages

Language evelopment occurs in stages:

• Sensorimotor: make/copy sounds.

• Preoperational : Use language to express thoughts, limited social use.

• Concrete operational : Use language about concrete objects/events.

• Formal operationa: Talk about abstract, hypothetical ideas.